摘 要:語用預(yù)設(shè)是語言領(lǐng)域研究得最廣的一個話題,它與語境密切相關(guān),是說話人和聽話人所共知的信息。語用預(yù)設(shè)是分析說話人真正意圖的一種非常實用的工具。從語用學的角度出發(fā),語用預(yù)設(shè)可分為存在預(yù)設(shè)、事實預(yù)設(shè)、詞匯預(yù)設(shè)、結(jié)構(gòu)預(yù)設(shè)、非事實預(yù)設(shè)和虛假預(yù)設(shè)等六大類別;與語境相伴隨,語用預(yù)設(shè)具合適性和共知性兩大特征。
關(guān)鍵詞:預(yù)設(shè) 語用預(yù)設(shè) 預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語
0.引言
“預(yù)設(shè)” (Presupposition) 首先由德國著名的哲學家和邏輯學家弗雷格(Frege)于1892年提出,最初只是哲學研究的重要話題。隨著現(xiàn)代語言學的不斷發(fā)展,預(yù)設(shè)進入了語言學研究的范疇,已成為語義學、語用學和認知語言學研究的重要課題。
1.語義預(yù)設(shè)和語用預(yù)設(shè)
預(yù)設(shè)是一種推論,它是指在語言結(jié)構(gòu)的基礎(chǔ)上依靠邏輯概念、語義、語境等推斷出話語意義的先決條件,一般可分為語義預(yù)設(shè)和語用預(yù)設(shè)兩類[1]。語義預(yù)設(shè)是從邏輯和語義方面進行分析,是從句子內(nèi)部得到的,跟語境無關(guān);而語用預(yù)設(shè)則是從語用方面進行分析,涉及到言語交際中人的因素和語境的因素,是發(fā)話人的預(yù)設(shè),雖然以句子意義和結(jié)構(gòu)為基礎(chǔ),但只有結(jié)合語境才能夠推導出來[2]。何自然認為語用預(yù)設(shè)是指“那些對語境敏感的、與說話人 (有時還包括說話對象) 的信念、態(tài)度、意圖有關(guān)的前提關(guān)系”[3]。例如,有人告訴我“你的哥哥在門口等你”,顯而易見,這句話預(yù)設(shè)了“我有個哥哥”。“Tell Mark I’m at lunch”這句話的語用預(yù)設(shè)就是說話人的一系列設(shè)想:說話人肯定Mark這個人在他說話后不久將會出現(xiàn);說話人認為聽話人知道Mark是誰;說話人相信聽話人愿意為他傳遞這個口信。簡而言之,“語義預(yù)設(shè)是和句子或句子的命題聯(lián)系在一起的,而語用預(yù)設(shè)則是和說話人聯(lián)系在一起的”[4]。
2.語用預(yù)設(shè)的分類
當我們要分析說話人的真正意圖時,預(yù)設(shè)是一種非常實用的分析工具。例如,如果有人問你“你何時戒煙的?”這個問句預(yù)設(shè)的信息至少有兩個:第一,你過去經(jīng)常抽煙;第二,你現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)不再抽煙了。
語言學家經(jīng)過研究發(fā)現(xiàn),說話人經(jīng)常使用大量的詞語、短詞或句子,來幫助產(chǎn)生某種預(yù)設(shè)的效果。這些能夠作為預(yù)設(shè)基礎(chǔ)的詞項或表層結(jié)構(gòu)形式就被稱為“預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語”,不同類型的預(yù)設(shè)具有不同的預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語。
2.1 存在預(yù)設(shè) (existential presupposition)
這類預(yù)設(shè)經(jīng)常使用某些限定性或修飾性詞語來充當預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語,如表定指描寫的詞a,the,another, either, only, this, that, these, those, my, your, 以及’s所有格和表重復(fù)的詞again等[5]。例如:
(1) Jane might find the cake in the kitchen.
(2) Is Jane giving Tom that cake?
(3) Did Jane hide Tom’s cake?
there was a cake. (“》”表示“預(yù)設(shè)”)
例句(1)、 (2)、 (3)包含相同的預(yù)設(shè)“there was a cake”,三個句子中分別使用了“the, that, Tom’s”當預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語。
(4) Mike’s wife is a school teacher.
(5) Mike’s wife is not a school teacher.
Mike has a wife.
例句(4) 和(5)包含相同的預(yù)設(shè)“Mike has a wife”,兩個句子都使用了“Mike’s”當預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語。
2.2 事實預(yù)設(shè) (factive presupposition)
這類預(yù)設(shè)經(jīng)常使用一些敘實動詞(factive verbs),如know, realize , regret等,以及包括be aware that, be odd that,be glad that,be sorry that,be disappointed that,be indifferent that,be sad that,be proud that 等短語。這類預(yù)設(shè)指的是那些客觀存在的已經(jīng)發(fā)生的事實。例如:
(6) Johnson realized that he had made a mistake.
Johnson made a mistake.
(7) She was aware that something was burning.
Something was burning.
(8) The little boy was proud that he had a new bike.
The little boy had a new bike.
例句(6) 、(7)、(8)分別使用了“realize, be aware that, be proud that”當預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語,分別預(yù)設(shè)了三個客觀存在的已經(jīng)發(fā)生的事情。
2.3 詞匯預(yù)設(shè) (lexical presupposition)
這類預(yù)設(shè)經(jīng)常使用一些像manage、forget等的含蓄動詞(implicative verbs),這類動詞通常包含有兩層的語義特征。說話人通過使用這類含蓄動詞,能夠成功地預(yù)設(shè)出言語背后的實際意義。例如:
(9) He managed to get the ticket.
He tried to get the ticket and succeeded in doing it.
(“manage” means “one tries to do” and “succeed in doing”.)
(10) Mary forgot to buy that special book for her son.
Mary ought to buy that book but actually had not bought.
(“Forget”means“one ought to do but actually has not done”.)
(11) It so happened that he failed in the final exam.
He didn’t intend to fail, but actually he failed.
(“happen” means “originally not intend to something but actually it has been done or it has taken place”.)
此外,這類預(yù)設(shè)還包括一些表示狀態(tài)變化的動詞(change-of-state verbs),這類動詞有stop, arrive, begin, start, carry on, continue, cease, leave, finish, enter, come, go, turn, transform等等。例如:
(12) He stopped smoking.
He used to smoke, but he does not smoke now.
(13) They started complaining.
They weren’t complaining before.
2.4 結(jié)構(gòu)預(yù)設(shè) (structural presupposition)
這類預(yù)設(shè)通過提問的形式來體現(xiàn),與語言的語法結(jié)構(gòu)相聯(lián)系,說話人采用這種結(jié)構(gòu)時把信息看作是已知的。
2.4.1 特殊疑問句 (the Wh-questions) 例如:
(14) Where did Jake buy this coat?
Jack bought a coat.
(15) Why did Mike smash the television?
Mike smashed the television.
2.4.2 一般疑問句和選擇疑問句 (Yes / no questions and alternative questions) 例如:
(16) Is there a micro-wave oven in the kitchen?
Either there is a micro-wave oven in the kitchen or there is not micro-wave oven in the kitchen
(17) Do you speak Japanese or French?
You speak either Japanese or French.
2.5 非事實預(yù)設(shè) (non- factive presupposition)
這類預(yù)設(shè)經(jīng)常使用像“dream,imagine,pretend”等動詞來表明該預(yù)設(shè)不是真的。例如:
(18) She dreamed that she could fly.
She could not fly.
(19) He pretends to be ill.
He is not ill.
2.6 虛假預(yù)設(shè) (counter-factual presupposition)
這類預(yù)設(shè)是通過使用虛擬語氣或者一些類似的動詞和結(jié)構(gòu)來預(yù)設(shè)一些與事實不相符的信息。例如:
(20) If you were my friend, you would have helped me.
You are not my friend.
(21) He wished he had passed the exam.
He didn’t pass the exam.
3.語用預(yù)設(shè)的特征
與語境密切相關(guān),語用預(yù)設(shè)具有合適性和共知性兩大特征。
3.1 合適性
語用預(yù)設(shè)的合適性,是指預(yù)設(shè)要與語境緊密結(jié)合,預(yù)設(shè)是言語行為的先決條件。合適的預(yù)設(shè)能夠使聽者明白說者的言語行為。例如:
(22) “Tom, repair the chair.”
The chair is broken or something wrong with it.
Tom knows which chair refers to.
Tom was able to repair the chair.
(23) “Mary, clean the room.”
The room is dirty or in a mess.
Mary knows which room refers to.
Mary has time to clean the room.
例句(22) 和(23),不同的說者分別對Tom和Mary說的話語中,分別包含以上三個預(yù)設(shè)。
3.2 共知性
語用預(yù)設(shè)必須是談話雙方所共知的,或者是眾人皆知的常識。例如:
(24) A: Where's my box of chocolate?
B: The children were in your room this morning.
Almost all children like eating chocolate.
顯而易見,B的回答中暗含著“A的巧克力有可能被小孩子們吃掉了。”問話人A能夠立刻明白回答者B的這個意思。因為B的預(yù)設(shè)是一個總所周知的常識,即“幾乎所有的小孩都喜歡吃巧克力”。如果缺少這個預(yù)設(shè),那么談話的雙方A和B的交流就有障礙。如果將以上的對話改成如下的對話:
(25) A: Where's my box of cigars?
B: The children were in your room this morning.
我們可以想象得到:對于B的回答,A會相當?shù)乩Щ蟛唤狻R驗锽的回答是含糊不清的。按常理,小孩是不會喜歡香煙的。
例(24)和(25)具有相同的句式結(jié)構(gòu),即問話人A想知道他的東西(巧克力、香煙)在哪里,回答者B則告訴他可能的信息,但是兩句話的結(jié)果卻是截然不同的。例(24)中,A很容易就能從B的答話里面得出這么一個信息“他的巧克力有可能被小孩子們吃掉了”。但是例(25)中,B的回答卻讓A困惑不解,因為A知道“小孩子們是不喜歡香煙的,尤其是女孩子就更不喜歡了。”
以上這兩個例子清楚地告訴我們,語用預(yù)設(shè)是交際雙共有的背景知識,即說話人認為他和聽話人都能理解的關(guān)于語句的知識。因此,在交際過程中,交際雙方共有的知識是進行成功交際的必要條件。
4.結(jié)語
簡而言之,語用預(yù)設(shè)與語境密切相關(guān),指的是說話人和聽話人所共知的信息,是保證交際順利進行的一個必要條件。對語用預(yù)設(shè)的準確把握能有效地幫助聽話人準確分析說話人的信念、態(tài)度和意圖。
參考文獻:
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[2] 李曉蘭. 英語廣告中的語用預(yù)設(shè)及其漢譯策略[J]. 昭通師范高等專科學報. 2006, 28(6): 48-51.
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[4] 何兆熊. 新編語用學概要[M]. 上海: 上海外語教育出版社, 2000, 284
[5] Levinson. Pragmatics[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1981
作者簡介:潘毓卿(1978.6-),女,福建永春人,講師,大學本科,主要從事英語專業(yè)教學,研究方向:英文語法與翻譯。