朱佳琪,馬躍文,陳銳
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脊髓損傷患者泌尿系感染研究進展
朱佳琪,馬躍文,陳銳
[摘要]脊髓損傷患者的泌尿系感染通常與泌尿系結石、排空障礙以及應用導尿管相關,是創傷性或非創傷性脊髓損傷患者最常見的感染原因。反復泌尿系感染會引起腎功能損傷,而為了控制感染長期反復應用抗生素可能導致多重耐藥菌定植進一步惡化感染。因此,康復階段脊髓損傷患者泌尿系感染的預防、治療方案的確定顯得尤為重要。為了改善這類患者的預后,近年來各國研究者提出了許多新的臨床經驗及實驗室方案,本文綜述對脊髓損傷后泌尿系感染診療相關研究,以期對臨床醫療提供借鑒。
[關鍵詞]脊髓損傷;泌尿系感染;診療方案;綜述
[本文著錄格式]朱佳琪,馬躍文,陳銳.脊髓損傷患者泌尿系感染研究進展[J].中國康復理論與實踐,2016,22(6):676-679.
CITED AS:Zhu JQ,Ma YW,Chen R.Research progress of urinary tract infections in patients with spinal cord injury(review)[J].Zhongguo Kangfu Lilun Yu Shijian,2016,22(6):676-679.
泌尿系感染(urinary tract infections,UTIs)是指細菌侵襲尿道后,引起上皮細胞發生的炎癥反應,臨床表現為菌尿或膿尿(白細胞尿)。對于頸段、胸段及上腰段脊髓損傷患者,上位腦橋排尿中樞與下位神經元的聯系損害,導致下尿路系統儲尿、控制及排空過程受到影響,從而發生神經源性膀胱功能損害[1]。這種損害引發的膀胱內壓增高、返流、結石以及神經性梗阻會使得UTIs發生的可能大大提高[2]。隨著技術發展,醫生對脊髓損傷患者排尿管理越發重視,但泌尿系并發癥仍然是脊髓損傷患者第二種常見的致死原因[3]。因此,我們將近年脊髓損傷后UTIs治療研究進展做一綜述,旨在為臨床工作提供一些新的思路。
外傷或非外傷性脊髓損傷患者中,UTIs的年發生率約為2.5次/人,其中繼發敗血癥并最終致死的患者約占15%[4],而常見致病菌包括假單胞菌屬、變形桿菌和沙雷氏菌屬[5]。Esclarin De Ruz等曾報道在合格的脊髓損傷UTIs患者尿液標本中,45%可見大腸桿菌,36%為腸桿菌科,15%為銅綠假單胞菌,15%為不動桿菌,12%為腸球菌屬,6%為其他菌屬,還有26%為多菌株感染[6]。通過進行膀胱沖洗試驗及抗體包被試驗可知,脊髓損傷患者在間歇導尿過程中,60%會出現下尿路細菌定植,40%出現上尿路細菌定植[7],但上尿路細菌定植引起膿尿(白細胞尿)的發生率遠大于下尿路細菌定植者[8]。
膀胱及尿道括約肌神經支配主要來源于腦橋和脊神經骶段[9-10],因此頸段、胸段及腰段高位脊髓損傷患者通常存在上、下位神經控制離斷或受損情況。骶段脊神經中分布著Onuf核,這種核團主要接受來自膀胱的傳入沖動,并通過S2-4神經根將排尿沖動反饋給泌尿系統[11]。胸腰段脊神經對排尿影響較小,但其中行走的交感神經及副交感神經功能紊亂會對膀胱頸的控制產生一定的干擾[12]。脊髓之上,腦干及雙側間腦構成了主要的排尿控制中樞。其中,腦橋排尿中樞(Barrington核)位于腦橋嘴側背外側網狀結構內,可以直接興奮膀胱運動神經元,松弛尿道括約肌開放尿路;中腦導水管周圍灰質負責接受膀胱充盈信號,而下丘腦視前區則參與排尿起始的控制[13]。扣帶回和運動前區皮質可以抑制下位中樞排尿反射[14]。脊髓損傷使得患者腦橋排尿中樞及上位大腦中樞抑制、調控泌尿系統排尿活動的功能受損,因此,只要脊髓損傷發生于骶段脊神經以上,患者都會不同程度出現膀胱括約肌協同功能失調[15]。
3.1癥狀
脊髓損傷患者UTIs的早期診斷比較困難,因為該類患者通常缺失UTIs的典型癥狀,諸如尿頻、尿急、尿痛、排尿困難、下腹部感覺異常、腎區疼痛或感覺過敏等;而不典型癥狀諸如排尿習慣改變、膀胱殘尿量增加、尿臭、肌肉痙攣或不自主反射加劇更常見于該類患者[16]。研究發現大約45%的脊髓損傷患者發熱與UTIs相關,因此臨床上大部分脊髓損傷患者UTIs被發現并重視的原因為出現發熱[17]。
3.2實驗室檢查
臨床上當發現每毫升清潔中段尿樣品中細菌數≥105或細菌數<105但存在UTIs癥狀者,可以診斷為菌尿。當清潔尿常規提示尿中白細胞>10/高倍視野時,臨床上可以診斷膿尿或白細胞尿,需要考慮患者存在UTIs的可能。Moser等研究顯示,大腸桿菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、臭鼻肺炎克雷伯菌、奇異變形桿菌、糞腸球菌及銅綠假單胞菌等致病菌血清沉淀抗體與患者脊髓損傷發病時間、UTIs的發生次數及留置尿管時間顯著相關[18]。而在假單胞菌屬細菌感染過程中,33%的患者出現免疫球蛋白IgG和/或IgA明顯增高(≥4倍)[17]。大于1%脊髓損傷UTIs患者會出現菌血癥或敗血癥,其中90%以上患者出現發熱,17%出現血壓降低,約15%患者死亡[19-20]。泌尿道醫療操作是發病危險因素之一,而四肢癱及完全性脊髓損傷相比普通脊髓損傷患者更容易因此被誘發菌血癥[21]。
4.1導尿管管理
對于在院脊髓損傷患者而言,留置導尿管是導致UTIs的重要原因之一,可能引起嚴重并發癥,延長住院時間,大量增加醫療費用[22-23]。通過為期1年的隨訪發現,導尿管相關UTIs及無癥狀菌尿的發生率約為每100人中每天發生2.7例和5例[24]。研究顯示,導尿管相關UTIs的發生率與UTIs診斷標準及導尿策略相關[25-26]。
4.1.1導尿管種類的選擇
用于制作導尿管的材料通常有乳膠、塑料、硅膠及四氟乙烯塑料,然而這些材料都不具有完全生物相容性,均可引起并發癥。相對而言,乳膠導管表面比硅膠導管更容易被細菌黏附,更有可能引起UTIs[27]。此外,乳膠導管更容易誘發機體內毒性效應及促炎反應,長期應用可能導致息肉性膀胱炎[28]。硅膠導管雖然引起UTIs風險較低,但因為質地較硬,舒適感較差,從而降低患者依從性[29-30]。
為了提高導尿管的舒適性并降低感染風險,近年來臨床上出現了三種主要涂層技術,包括親水涂層、銀離子親水涂層和抗生素涂層導尿管。
親水涂層是一種可以提高導尿舒適性,減少微生物黏附,預防導尿管結殼的新興技術[31-32]。一項多中心隨機研究回顧了224例3個月內發生創傷性脊髓損傷的間歇導尿患者,發現相比無涂層聚氯乙烯導尿管,應用親水涂層導尿管可以明顯延遲首次UTIs的發生時間,并可以使日患UTIs風險降低1/3[30]。
銀離子親水涂層技術主要應用銀離子本身抗微生物屬性以控制UTIs風險[33],已被證實可以降低短期院內UTIs風險[34]。但已有的數據并不能除外長期應用銀離子涂層導尿管引起銀中毒可能,因此尚需臨床大樣本、長隨訪研究完善數據[35]。
同樣,抗生素涂層導尿管可以短期內減少無癥狀菌尿的發生,但也缺少長時間隨訪數據,并且還沒有證據支持抗生素涂層導尿管可以降低有癥狀UTIs發生風險[25]。
4.1.2導尿方案的選擇
脊髓損傷后的尿潴留使得醫生需要為患者選擇適當的導尿方案,只有掌握恰當的導尿時機,盡早拔除尿管并且注意導尿過程中無菌操作,才能有效降低導尿管相關UTIs風險[4]。根據美國炎癥疾病協會意見,導尿僅適用于大量尿潴留(藥物治療無效)、尿失禁的臨終患者,需要嚴格監測尿量的危重患者,以及長時間手術過程[25]。盡早拔除留置的尿管可以減少菌尿的發生。對于需要長期攜帶尿管的脊髓損傷患者,通常建議每2~4周常規更換尿管以降低UTIs風險,一旦懷疑存在UTIs應立刻更換尿管[36]。相比留置導尿,間歇導尿可以降低菌尿風險(70%vs.98%)[37-38],但間隔時間過長反而會增加菌尿風險[39]。目前間歇導尿的指導意見為每日最少間隔6h及睡前導尿1次,使膀胱殘余尿量小于400ml,以避免返流及感染[37]。
手清潔及消毒技術是一種簡單、有效的方式以減少護理相關感染,因此也被建議應用于更換尿管的過程中[40]。但目前并沒有證據說明院內醫療人員導尿相比家庭自主導尿所引起的UTIs風險小。
4.2可疑泌尿系感染
對于攜帶導尿管無癥狀菌尿患者,在沒有確切診斷UTIs之前,為避免細菌耐藥不應該應用系統抗生素治療[41]。近年有研究提出,每周一次預防性交替口服抗生素可以明顯減少UTIs年發生率,并且不會增加抗生素副作用或導致多重細菌耐藥的風險[42-43]。
4.3確診泌尿系感染
4.3.1抗生素治療
當患者發生導尿相關UTIs時,應用抗生素之前,臨床醫生需要做出的決定主要是:①應用抗生素是否需要覆蓋尿培養結果中的所有病原體;②抗生素預計需要應用多少長時間?美國感染疾病協會建議針對導尿管相關UTIs患者,應該盡早拔除尿管,對于長期依賴導尿患者,可以應用療程7~14d的抗生素[25]。大多數情況下醫生在選擇抗生素時都應該以尿培養結果為依據,傾向特異性高的窄譜抗生素,并且盡可能縮短抗生素用藥時間。但也有報道指出,對于社區獲得的嚴重UTIs,病原體相對復雜,可能需要應用廣譜抗生素進行覆蓋治療[44]。Everaert等建議,對于脊髓損傷患者,慢性期診斷UTIs但不伴發熱癥狀時只需應用抗生素治療5d;急性期診斷UTIs但不伴發熱者可以應用抗生素治療7d;診斷UTIs并伴隨發熱患者需要應用抗生素治療14d。此外,他們還提出,根據當地致病菌分布情況,呋喃妥因和甲氧芐氨嘧啶適用于慢性脊髓損傷UTIs患者,而喹諾酮類和頭孢呋辛更適用于急性脊髓損傷UTIs患者[45]。
4.3.2細菌干擾技術
近年來,通過為膀胱接種非致病菌來抑制致病菌生長的技術引起了廣泛的關注。一項隨機研究顯示,為神經源性膀胱患者接種非致病大腸桿菌可以顯著降低有癥狀UTIs一年發生率。但這種技術的療效十分依賴于接種細菌的定植能力,在該研究中,僅有37%患者成功接種益生菌[46]。細菌干擾技術的療效機制并不完全清楚,可能與非治病大腸桿菌廣泛抑制宿主核糖核酸聚合酶Ⅱ基因的表達相關,從而減少體內炎癥反應和病原體免疫應答的發生[47]。該技術尚未廣泛應用主要原因在于:①接種設備及操作過程復雜,耗時數日;②益生菌接種后保持、維護困難,可能需要反復接種;③因為尿液滲漏流出,患者配合依從有限。
泌尿系感染目前仍是脊髓損傷患者需要面對的一個重大健康隱患,泌尿系結構功能的改變、頻繁的導尿、感覺功能障礙以及免疫功能下降,都使得該類患者難于早期診斷并獲得及時治療。如何才能更早地診斷,更好地預防、控制脊髓損傷患者UTIs依然是臨床亟待解決的問題。除了不斷改良導尿技術、應用優質導尿管、掌握更換導尿管時機、盡量避免長期留置尿管、合理應用抗生素等措施之外,副作用小、依從性好、操作簡單并適合長期應用的治療方法更符合臨床需求。
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Research Progress of Urinary Tract Infections in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury(review)
ZHU Jia-qi,MA Yue-wen,CHEN Rui
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine,First Hospital of China Medical University,Shenyang,Liaoning 110001,China
Correspondence to MA Yue-wen.E-mail:yuewen_m@sina.com
Abstract:Urinary tract infections remain the most frequent infection in patients with either traumatic or nontraumatic spinal cord injury.The urinary tract infections are closely related to impaired bladder storage,voiding dysfunction,and use of indwelling catheters after spinal cord injury.Repeated urinary tract infections can cause upper urinary tract deterioration,and related chronic or repeated exposure to the antibiotics used to treat urinary tract infections increases the risk of multidrug-resistant bacteria colonization.Therefore,it is important to determine appropriate urinary tract infections treatment in spinal cord injury patients who are admitted to rehabilitation hospitals.The limitations of the usual measures in prevention of urinary tract infections in this population have led the way to explore more innovative modalities and approaches.We reviewed the researches of urinary tract infections on spinal cord injury.It is presented to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment.
Key words:spinal cord injury;urinary tract infections;diagnosis and treatment;review
[中圖分類號]R651.2
[文獻標識碼]A
[文章編號]1006-9771(2016)06-0676-04
DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1006-9771.2016.06.011
作者單位:中國醫科大學附屬第一醫院康復科,遼寧沈陽市110001。
作者簡介:朱佳琪(1985-),女,漢族,湖南益陽市人,碩士,醫師、助教,主要研究方向:神經康復、心臟康復。通訊作者:馬躍文(1964-),女,滿族,遼寧沈陽市人,博士,教授,主要研究方向:神經康復、心臟康復。E-mail:yuewen_m@sina.com。
收稿日期:(2016-03-28修回日期:2016-04-19)