改造舊鄉村

改造舊鄉村

Revitalizing Old Villages

城市與鄉村之間的對比，也許沒有比在中國更明顯的了。溫飽型生存環境迫使農民從鄉村涌入城市，耕地也被用于其他用途。然而，中國意識到了這種趨勢持續下去會帶來危害，會對社會的構成和將來的糧食安全造成威脅。關于北京市郊的試點城市規劃設計，論證了需要做多少工作來讓人留在鄉村環境，以及能夠為此做多少工作。

不管在哪種情況下，人們只要想到中國，就會被各種令人驚訝的數據和實際情況所震驚。過去30年，中國經濟平均每年以10%增長。我們可以稱中國為發展中國家，也可以稱其為經濟強國。

一項對中國北京周邊郊區某村莊的鄉村規劃設計表明，遺產保護、傳統知識、當地資源、現代技術和專業項目管理相結合具有一定程度的力量，而且如果考慮到中國農村產業的巨大規模，這種力量會變得更強大。

中國農民占全球公民的十分之一

沿海地區的經濟發展最引人注目，擁有的人口為4億。在這些地區，人們的生活水準快速提升，而且整體上超過了生活在中國內陸的其他9億人。地區之間的差異更為明顯，而城市與農村之間的差異尤其明顯。中國社會科學院的一項研究表明，中國的農村與城市居民之間收入分配差距在全球最大。尤其我們考慮到全球公民的1/10為農民時，就會覺得這種對比特別明顯。

人口大規模流動

溫飽型農業在中國仍是常態——農民家庭的產出基本用來滿足自身家庭的需要，最好的情況下也就出售1/4。也就是說，可支配收入很少，而且少有機會在機械化和其他農田改造上投資。作為密集發展中心的江河下游地區可能會有所不同——這里的農業受到國家扶持。就算如此，過去20年來，農村的實際收入急劇降低，因而人們逐漸決定離開土地，到沿海謀生。

城市有很多工作機會，尤其是建筑行業和服務行業——從而鼓勵其他人加入大規模人口流動。據估計，從1982年到1990年，大約有兩億人從中國農村中心區域流動到城市。根據政府估計，到2010年，另外將有1.8億農民加入流動大軍。

疏導人口外流潮

那些加入農村人口外出大軍的人，現在意識到在“新家”享受很少權益，也感覺到了如果要在城市定居會受到排擠。中國戶口制度，像土地本身一樣古老，認為居住地是唯一有效的家庭戶口登記地。因此，城市外來人口只能享受有限的教育權益或政府服務。

這些年來，中國當局已經開展工作來改進戶口制度，但是人口流動不可能減緩，除非農村的生存條件得以改善。因而中國實施一項計劃來發展被長期忽略的地區，并制定了這樣一個目標——政府承諾到2020年，農村居民的平均收入翻倍；現在，年收入水平為600美元左右。

2 土地利用規劃/Land use planning

3 社區的微擴散更新模式/Micro-spreading renewal model for the community

4 從廢棄場地開始，社會肌理基本保持原有的物質模式/Start from abandoned sites, social fabric basically maitained in its original physical pattern

土地利用類型/Land use type國有土地/State owned land

水域/Water area

農業用地/Cultivated land

林地/Wood land

閑置土地/Unused land

居住/Residence

行政/Administration

商業服務/Commercial service制造業/Manufacturing

設施農業/Equipped agriculture交通/Transportation

街道及廣場/Street & square

基礎設施/Public utility

公共綠化/Public green建設用地/ Construction 19%

林地/

Woodland

19%農業用地/ Cultivated land 56%

農用地的急劇流失

在中國，土地改革是政府工作的重頭戲。農用地被認為是當地行政市的集體財產——家庭從村委會租賃農用地，租期為30年。但是，農民從農村到城市的流動導致了許多租約被放棄——免費地塊被集中起來出售用于其他用途。而且這導致了農用地的急劇流失——而農用地是中國將來食品安全所依賴的基礎。

中國農業部采用的模型表明，國家需要1.2億hm2

2農用地來滿足自身需要?，F在，仍有1.22億hm2農用地用于農業生產，但統計表明，每年有20萬hm2農用地流失，這需要警惕。尤其是近百萬勉強靠這有限空間生活的農民。需要有一項綜合解決方案來應對導致問題的原因和造成的影響。

5 改善交通/Circulation improving

6 改善基礎設施與公共服務/Infrastructure & public services improving

7 公共參與/Public participation

改革土地權益

2006年，中國在當時的五年計劃中引入了一項新計劃，旨在實現這兩個目標。其中一項措施就是改進基礎設施、教育和培訓制度，以此促進農村發展。另一項具體針對可用土地流失的措施，就是農地租賃法規的部分自由化。將來，離開土地到城市的農民將有權直接將土地租給其他農民，或者將土地用于流轉農業用途。該措施旨在預防出售共有土地用于不同用途——理論上，行政市仍是土地所有者，并承諾為任何希望耕種土地的農民保留耕地。

成群的調查研究人員

在中國，每個地區根據自身條件來靈活實施國家計劃。在北京地區，由政府官員倪峰負責。2006年，他邀請建筑師和城市規劃設計師張悅參與首都周邊農村地區的研究，其預想是研究應如何實施該計劃。“在清華大學時，我就認識了倪鋒。”在頂級大學任教的張悅解釋道。張悅立即被項目吸引住了——特別是因為直接與村民交往，包括逐戶調查?！拔蚁矚g調查工作。”35歲精力旺盛的張悅說道。張悅與團隊一起編制了一個綜合問卷。“我們坐公交車到村民家，向每個人詢問他們的需要?！?/p>

對調查工作的積極回應

離城市距離不同的、規模各異的村莊被選用于研究。三人組調查人員向受訪家庭詢問其經濟和社會條件——他們的需要和期望。一共在5個村莊訪問了1000多戶家庭。村民非常坦率，而且樂意提供諸如家庭收入之類的個人信息。“我們的大學有良好的聲譽，”張悅說，研究人員因此很有信心?！袄斫饬嗽擁椖亢脱芯咳藛T的熱情后——村民對提供具體數據變得不那么拘謹。”

調查工作證實，該區域遇到的問題很大，而且有多面性。所有村民遇到的共同問題就是缺少基礎設施以及年輕人外流到城市。“現在只有留守兒童和老年人。”衛生條件差也是一個重要問題。廢水和污水處理系統差或者不存在，因而環境狀況不樂觀。

“早些年，廢物直接處理，不用考慮什么。”他說?！?0年前，這不是一個問題，因為廢物主要是有機物?！睂砜赡苊媾R的問題是電力供應和能源需求。在中國，冬天會比較寒冷；許多農村住所的隔熱措施很差，窗戶通常是用紙糊的。黑煤用來取暖——在這類條件下，這不是充分的能源來源。

大量有價值的措施

這項研究讓張悅及其綜合性團隊與當局坐下來討論為順義區試點村開發一項具體的重建方案。這是離北京市中心東北45km的300戶家庭約1000人口的小型社區。研究人員采訪村民，還調查基礎設施需求、建筑標準、公共空間的綠化、每戶家庭的能源使用、現有道路體系和詳細的人口數據。通過大量數據，創建了一個全面的數據庫，因而可以

Te contrast between city and country is perhaps no more starkly presented than in China. Subsistence living conditions drive millions into the cities and farming land is converted to new uses. China, however, has realized the dangers of such continuing trends – which threaten societal make-up as well as future food security. A pilot urban planning strategy on Beijing's urban fringe demonstrates how much needs to be done to keep people in rural settings –and how much can be done.

In any context, when considering China, we are swamped by numbers – impressive, but increasingly matter-of-factual. Over the past 30 years the Chinese economy has grown, on average, by around ten percent per annum. In the same breath, one can call China both a developing country and an economic superpower.

A rural planning design for a suburban village on the outskirts of Beijing shows the power of combining heritage preservation, traditional knowledge, local materials, modern technology, and professional project management – and becomes all the more powerful when one considers the vast scale of China's rural sector.

One in ten global citizens is a Chinese farmer

Economic development is most pronounced in coastal regions, accounting for some 400 million of the country's population. However, rapidly improving life quality in such areas has generally passed China's other 900 million inhabitants by – those who live on, and off the land. Tis varies more markedly between regions, but particularly between city and country. A Chinese Academy of Social Sciences study confirms that China experiences the world's largest income divide between rural and city dwellers. Te contrast is especially stark when we stop to consider that one in ten global citizens is a Chinese farmer.

Mass migration – en masse!

Subsistence agriculture is still the norm in China – farming families provide for themselves and, at best, sell only a quarter of their yield. This equates to little disposable income, and few opportunities to invest in mechanization or other farm improvements. Somewhat different is the situation in the catchment areas of dense development centers – agriculture here was supported by the state. Yet, over the past 20 or so years, there has been a dramatic drop in rural real income with the result that people increasingly decided to leave the land for the cities on the coast.

There was work to be had – the building and services sectors especially – which in turn encouraged others to join the mass migration. Estimates suggest that between 1982 and 1990 around 200 million people from China's rural heartlands migrated to the cities. Te government expects that by 2010, another 180 million will have followed them.

8 節地農宅設計/Land-saving housing design

Stemming the human tide

Those joining the rural exodus are aware they will have few rights in their new "homes", yet they feel compelled to still relocate to the cities. The Chinese Hukou system, as ancient as the land itself, deems residency is only valid in the place of one's family registration. Hence, migrants have limited rights to education or government services.

For years Chinese authorities have worked to improve the system but migration is unlikely to abate until the living conditions in rural areas improve. A program to develop long-neglected regions is progressing with this goal in mind – the government is committed to doubling the average income of a rural dweller by 2020; at present, this sits at around USD 600 per annum.

Dramatic loss of farming land

High priority is also accorded to land reform in China. Farming land is deemed the collective property of local municipalities – families lease acreage from their village committee for 30 years. However, the drift of peasants to the cities has resulted in many leases being relinquished – free plots become aggregated and sold for other uses. Moreover, they result in the dramatic loss of farming land – on which China's future food security depends.

Modeling undertaken by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture states that the country needs around 120 million hectares of agriculturally-productive land in order to feed itself. Currently, 122 million hectares are still being worked but statistics indicating that a further loss of 200,000 hectares each year are alarming. Not least for the million or so farmers who eke out their existence on this limited space. An integrated solution is needed which addresses the range of incumbent causes and impacts.

Reforming land rights

A new initiative, introduced in 2006 as part of the current Chinese Five-Year-Plan, aims to achieve these twin objectives. Rural development is encouraged by improving infrastructure, education and training schemes, and other social services. A fur-ther measure, specifically targeting loss of arable land, is the partial liberalization of legislation regarding farm leases. In future, farmers who leave their land for the city will have the right to onlease directly to other farmers, or for alternate agricultural purposes. Tis aims to prevent the sale of common land for different uses – municipalities, still in theory the landholders, are committed to retaining land for cultivation at the disposal of any farmer who wishes to till the soil.

A busload of researchers

In China, each region and locality adapts state initiatives to their own conditions. In the area of Beijing itself, Government Officer NI Feng is responsible. In 2006, he invited architect and town planner, ZHANG Yue, to participate in studying the rural areas in the vicinity of the capital with a vision to how implementation of the initiative should occur. "I knew NI Feng from Tsinghua University in Beijing," ZHANG Yue explains, himself a lecturer at the leading university. ZHANG Yue was immediately attracted to the project – not least because of direct involvement with villagers, including door-to-door surveys. "I love research work," the energetic 35-year-old says. With his team, ZHANG Yue compiled an extensive questionnaire. "We took a bus to the villages and asked everyone about their needs."根據數據庫在能想到的范圍內設計一些改進方案?！拔覀兿胱约禾嵋粋€問題：在有限預算的前提下，我們如何能既解決環境污染問題，又能提高這里的生活質量呢？”結果就是該團隊研究出了大量有價值的措施。

9 住宅設計的環境因素/Contextual factors in housing design

10 農展設計的能源策略/Eco-strategies in housing design

新的總平面圖劃分了土地用途，為建筑開發設定了清晰的限制，注重保護自然環境，還包括了公共用途的區域。整個交通網也包含其中——該方案要求道路網能確保以后能到達任何公共建筑，例如診所或消防隊站點。基礎設施的改進包括公園、花園、防洪排水系統、每家每戶的分散式廢水和垃圾收集設施的建設。特別重要的一方面就是按照一定的標準更新農宅建筑——在小面積地塊上蓋更多的房子。法律的目標是實現宅基地占用農用地每處不超過200m2，而不是300m2。

更好的家——更多的機會

為了更好利用少量土地，項目規劃了兩層房屋。這是改造方案的核心。“我們開發了一個原型，以此證明在較小面積宅基地上建造房屋也可以很有吸引力?！苯ㄖ熣f。重要的考慮因素就是可負擔性。“我們的研究表明，12,500美元是人們愿意支付的極限；他們將需要政府補貼。”在中國，建造一幢具有可持續性的房屋的合理標準為2500美元。

張悅的團隊設計了一種確保家庭有機會進行個人選擇的房屋。它考慮了傳統知識和設計模式，結合了當地資源和現代技術。遺產保護也予以考慮。“設計中的可持續性原則包括太陽能、分散式廁所蹲坑、外部隔熱、雨水收集等主動和被動使用?！弊詈?，就和平時一樣，最重要的難題就是成本；團隊致力于盡可能將房屋成本控制在農民能承受的范圍內。

省地的房屋設計考慮了變化的家庭需求，如果有計劃下一代的話，房屋設計還可以分成兩個單元。

接下來會發生什么——從城市逃離到鄉村？

但張悅設計的原型不僅僅只關于成本。新的建筑設計還可以帶來機會。最近幾十年，中國城鎮化進展迅速，因為現在人們渴望呼吸鄉村的新鮮空氣，也有想到不那么擁擠的地方簡單地度假的需求。

“考慮到鄉村旅游的可能性，我們設計房子時，可以將上面一層裝修為客房。”他說。另外，還可以設置一個小型手工工作室作為收入來源。

新的建筑法也給我們提供了另一個視角。在北京，建造一個大規模的住宅事實上不太可能。張悅認為，在鄉村建造一個較大的房子對城市居民來說是一個很有吸引力的選擇?！暗挥形覀兲峁﹥炠|的基礎設施，這個想法才能實現。”建筑師張悅也遇到了從這個理念中發現潛在商機的投資者。曾為2008年的原型由當地工匠建造，現在住了一戶家庭，其本身也有利于該地區的就業。

“謹慎處理”

項目中涉及的措施很多，也許有人會問：不能簡單地拆除舊的設施，重新建造新的？“不可能——這不是解決方案！”張悅強調?！拔覀儧]有意愿摧毀這個鄉村的特征?！币蚨椖渴且匝驖u進的、友好的方式實施的。改造項目首先是以廢棄場所為重點；一個家庭由另一個家庭替代。逐步地，村里的一個球場被改造，但是以一種簡潔的方式。重點是保持社會凝聚力不受影響。

“誰還想住在原來老房子的，是可以的?！边@就是承諾。沒有人被迫接受革新。“但是我相信——我們的理念提供了這么多優勢，大部分人不會拒絕改變?！睘榱税l展新的道路系統，有些房屋需要被拆除——雖然在這種情況下張悅還是向村民承諾：“如果不想搬的，我們簡單地規劃其他路徑！”那天最后，目的就是讓村民在為了提高生活質量——就單獨為這個原因，讓各住戶自己決定自己的將來非常重要。

即有可能成為典范的理念

因為村莊的社會發展是規劃結構工作的一部分，反過來，該社區包含在有關重建方案的所有決策中。工作開展是透明的，反饋意見也會得以考慮。村民定期獲得關于計劃的信息，并被鼓勵在小組討論中發表他們自己的看法?！拔覀兘洺Ｌ岢鲆鉀Q的問題——例如，許多老年人在閱讀和理解計劃上存在困難，”張悅說?！拔覀儽仨殞ふ倚碌臏贤ǚ绞??！?/p>

然而，政府保證的物質支持只持續到2010年，該項目的將來具有不確定性。但張悅有信心，認為各項工作在這之后將繼續下去——中國致力于農村的發展。該項目的理念很有可能成為全球經歷快速變革的鄉村和城區的可持續發展的典范。張悅相信：“我們需要保留我們仍擁有的東西?！?/p>

Confident response to field work

Intense preparation prefaced the arrival of the researchers. Villages chosen for the study were of varying size and distance from the city. Families were visited by three-person teams to enquire about their eco-nomic and social conditions – their needs as well as expectations. More than a thousand interviews across five villages took place. Te communities were very open, also with personal information such as household income. "Our university has a good reputation," ZHANG Yue says, explaining the confi-dence with which the researchers were received. "With an understanding of the project and the enthusiasm of the researches – the villagers became less inhibited about providing concrete data."

The field work confirmed that problems confronting the region were substantial and multidimensional. Common to all villages was their insufficient infrastructure, and the loss of young people to the cities, ZHANG Yue explains. "Now only children and the elderly remain." Adequate sanitation is a central problem. With poor or nonexistent wastewater and sewage treatment systems, the environmental situation is troubling.

"Earlier, waste was simply disposed without thought," he says. "Thirty years ago this was not a problem, because waste was mainly organic." A further challenge is presented by power supply and energy needs. Winters can be bitter in China; many rural dwellings are poorly insulated and windows often sealed only with paper. Black coal is used for heating –an inefficient energy source in such conditions.

A treasure trove of measures

The research enabled ZHANG Yue and his multidisciplinary team to sit with local authorities and develop a concrete renewal strategy for a pilot village in the Shunyi district. This small community of some 1000 inhabitants across 300 families lies 45 kilo-meters northeast of Beijing's city centre. Te schedule of village interviews was supplemented by research into infrastructure needs, building standards, greening of public spaces, energy use per house, existing road systems and detailed demographic data. From this mass of information, a comprehensive database was created from which improvements could be planned on all conceivable levels. "We put a question to ourselves: How can we improve life quality here while addressing environmental pollution, all on a limited budget?" ZHANG Yue enthuses. A treasure trove of measures was the result.

The new master plan classifies land use, sets clear limits to building development, protects natural resources, and includes zones for public use. The entire transport network is implicated – the strategy calls for a network of roads to ensure that in future any public building is accessible, whether it be an outpatient clinic or the fire-brigade depot. Infrastructure improvements include the development of parks and gardens, drainage systems to protect against flooding, and decentralized sewage and garbage collection for each household. A particularly important aspect is the revised building code – more houses are planned on less land. Instead of 300 square meter allotments, the law aims for 200.

Better homes – more opportunities

To make better use of less land, two-storey houses are planned. These are at the heart of the renewal strategy. "We developed a prototype to demonstrate that building on smaller allotments could also be attractive", the architect says. An important consideration was also affordability. "Our research showed that USD 12,500 is the limit people would like to pay; government subsidies will be needed." In China a sustainable house can be constructed to a reasonable standard for USD 25,000.

ZHANG Yue's team designed a home which still ensures families have opportunities for personal choice. It takes account of traditional knowledge and design patterns, combines local materials and modern technologies. Heritage preservation is taken into account. "The sustainability principles in the design include active and passive use of solar energy, decentralized sanitation pits, exterior insulation, rainwater collection, and so on. It is integrated, yet has an optional menu for families to also choose what suits them best." At the end, as ever, the crucial challenge is one of cost; the team was committed to making the house as afford-able as possible.

The land-saving housing design takes account of changing family needs, and can even be divided into two units, if a new generation is planned.

What next – a city to country exodus?

Yet ZHANG Yue's prototype is not just about cost. There are also opportunities to be had with this new building design. China's urbanization has grown so remarkably in recent decades that there is now a yearning for country air, a demand, therefore, for brief holidays to less densely-packed regions.

"With rural tourism a possibility, we designed the house in such a way that the upper floor could be furnished as guest rooms." he says. Alternatively, a small handi-craft studio could be set up as a source of income.

Another perspective is that offered by the new building code. In Beijing, building a sizeable home is virtually impossible. ZHANG Yue believes that relocating to a village could be an appealing option for urban residents who want larger homes. "But this will only happen if we can offer good infrastructure." Te architect has already met with investors who see the commercial potential in his concept. What was once the prototype of 2008 now houses a family, built by local artisans which, in itself, pro-vides for security of employment in the area.

"Handle with care"

The measures involved in the project are so numerous that one could ask: Wouldn't it be simpler to demolish the old and start over afresh? "Impossible – that is no solution!" ZHANG Yue is emphatic. "We have no desire to destroy the character of this village." As a result, implementation is gradual, stepby-sympathetic-step. The renewal project is first concentrated on abandoned locations; one household is replaced by another. Gradually a village quarter is revitalized, but in a more compact way. Te emphasis is on keeping social cohesion intact.

"Whoever wishes to remain in their old house, may," is the promise. Nobody is forced to accept innovation. "But I am convinced – our concept offers so many advantages that most people do not resist change." To develop the new road system, some houses would need to be demolished –nevertheless in these cases ZHANG Yue is also open to compromise: "If people do not wish to move, we will simply plan the road differently!" At the end of the day, the purpose is to keep villagers in their community, and with improved life quality – for this reason alone, it is important for individual householders to decide their own future.

Concept with high potential to be role model

Because the village's social development is integral to the planned structural works, and vice-versa, the community is included in all decision-making regarding the renewal strategy. Transparency is a given, feedback taken into account. Villagers are regularly informed about plans and encouraged to offer their opinions in group discussions. "We are always presented with issues to solve – for example, many older people have difficulty reading or understanding the plans," ZHANG Yue says. "We must find new ways of communication." A new prototype is planned in order to refine the housing concept.

However with provisional government support assured only until 2010, the project's future is uncertain. ZHANG Yue is confident, though, that things will proceed beyond this date – China is committed to the development of its rural areas. And the concept has high potential to be a role model for sustainable development in rural communities and urban districts experiencing rapid change in emerging economies across the world. "We need to preserve what we still have," ZHANG Yue believes.