陳 勝
(廣東外語外貿大學南國商學院 英文學院, 廣東 廣州 510545)
中國高校英語使用者典型石化現象評析
陳 勝
(廣東外語外貿大學南國商學院 英文學院, 廣東 廣州 510545)
我國對英語的錯誤分析多以英語學習者為研究對象,極少涉及高校英語使用者。前者的失誤和錯誤五花八門,影響力小,如出現在練習中;后者的失誤和錯誤較少,但有些錯誤石化嚴重,規律性強,影響力大。高校英語使用者的典型石化現象可分為詞匯錯誤、語法錯誤、語音錯誤以及語用和文化錯誤。他們的錯誤往往是在真實的交際環境中產生的,因此,有必要正本清源,以免謬種流傳。
錯誤分析;石化現象;英語使用者;中國高校
語言研究可以是理性的,也可以是感性的。理性的語言研究注重哲理辨析和邏輯推理;感性的語言研究則偏重經驗判斷和數據分析。Olson就認為:“語言即當下經驗”。[1]本文的研究屬于后者,準確地說就是基于經驗判斷的。筆者從事英語教學逾四十年,作為碩士生導師和教育部碩士論文評審專家,主要從事英語類碩士研究生和本科生教學,同時也參與了各種聽課活動,期間發現中國高校的部分英語使用者(主要指即將畢業的英語類碩士研究生和英語教師)在真實的交際環境中(包括課堂教學、講課比賽、論文寫作和答辯、應聘面試、漢英翻譯)所發生的一些語言錯誤。與英語學習者不同,英語使用者(特別是英語教師)的錯誤往往少有人發現或發現后無人指出,因此有必要將這些常見錯誤歸納評析。
一般將語言的誤用分為兩種:一種是失誤(mistake)或(failure),口語中出現的則稱為口誤(a slip of the tongue),因疏忽大意而偶爾發生,往往可由失誤者自我察覺并矯正;另一種是錯誤(error),被語言使用者誤認為是正確的用法而反復使用,形成習慣性、頑固性的錯誤,甚至經提示后仍難以察覺,甚至察覺后還一犯再犯。Selinker稱之為“石化現象”。[2]這種產生于中國校園英語使用者的“錯誤”或“石化現象”正是本文所關注的。
(一)詞匯錯誤
1.“使”和“讓”的譯法。
例1:節日可以使 / 讓我們了解我們的歷史和文化。
?Festivals can make / let us understand our history and culture.
√ Festivals can help us understand our history and culture.
點評:make強調比較強烈的因果關系,有時甚至有“迫使”之意;let則多用于祈使句。而漢語中的“使”有時卻并非都是那么強烈,有時有“促使”、“有助于”的含義,因此用help是首選,亦可采用enable sb. to do sth.等句型。基于COCA美國當代英語語料庫的統計表明,help us understand頻次為563;而make us understand的頻次僅為5,且都帶有較為強烈的因果關系或迫使的意味。該統計還表明,let us understand的頻次為僅為19,其中15例為祈使句。
2.“首先”和“最后”的譯法
例2:首先,向各位在座的尊敬的教授表示衷心的感謝。
×At first, I’d like to express my sincere gratitude to the distinguished professors present.
√ First, I’d like to express my sincere gratitude to the distinguished professors present.
點評:表示“首先”或“開頭”,可以用first, first of all, firstly, in the first place, in the beginning, to begin with等。注意:用了first后面可以用second, third等或者secondly, thirdly等,但也可以沒有second或secondly等;用了firstly后面必須用secondly等。而At first是指“起初(但后來……)”,例:At first he was a little shy in class, but now he acts more natural.
例3:最后,作者分析了五類中國文化負載詞的特點。
×At last, the author analyzes the characteristics of the five types of Chinese culture-loaded words.
√ Last / Finally, the author analyzes the characteristics of the five types of Chinese culture-loaded words.
點評:表示“最后”可用last, finally, in the end, lastly等。而at last是指“(經過一番周折或一段等待、耽擱、期盼之后)終于”,有較強烈的主觀情緒,例:After a long winter, spring is here at last.3.介詞
例4:總共有240例肺結核的報道,其中60例(25%)是在囚犯身上發生的。
×A total of 240 TB cases were reported, among which 60 (25%) were in prisoners.
√ A total of 240 TB cases were reported, of which 60 (25%) were in prisoners.
點評:表示“多少人或物其中有多少(比例)或其中一個怎么樣”不能用among,而要用of,其道理與one of us和three of them是相通的。以下例句可參考: He is the tallest in the class. / He is the tallest of the students. / Divide the money among the six of us. / There is a lot of discontent among the workers.
例5:2012年至2014年間,逮捕的人里黑人占了83%。
×Between 2012 to 2014, blacks accounted for 83% of the arrests.
√ Between 2012 and 2014, blacks accounted for 83% of the arrests.
√ From 2012 to 2014, blacks accounted for 83% of the arrests.
點評:注意between…and 和from...to…的搭配。
例6:第一章是對中國英語教學的一個簡介。
×Chapter One is an introduction of English teaching in China.
√ Chapter One is an introduction to English teaching in China.
點評:introduction to 一般是指對某人、某物、某事的介紹,而introduction of sth. into a certain place or area 一般是指將某物引進到某地或某領域,例:Raleigh was responsible for the introduction of tobacco smoking into England. / As a case study, the introduction of programmable logic devices (PLD’s) into the digital design curriculum at the University of California, Santa Barbara, is presented. 此外,英美大學等機構的簡介,一般沒有A Brief Introduction to XXX University這個說法,而是采用About XXX University或University Profile(不用大學名,因為簡介就在該校的網頁上)。
(二)語法錯誤
1.“無論是”與“無論是……還是……”
例7:無論你是中國人還是外國人,都應該遵守規則。
×Now matter you are a foreigner or a Chinese, you should follow the rule.
√ Whether you are a foreigner or a Chinese, you should follow the rule.
點評:涉及到“無論”這個詞,漢語中有兩個表達:“無論是”和“無論是……還是……”,英語中相應的表達也迥然不同。“無論是”的表達是now matter + who / what / where / when / how / which + 主語 + 謂語;“無論是……還是……”的表達是whether…or…, 其強調式是no matter whether…or…。
2.“不……也不……”
例8:他解釋得既不清楚,也不準確。
×He did not explain it clearly and correctly.
√ He did not explain it clearly or correctly.
√ He explained it neither clearly nor correctly.
點評:這個問題涉及到全部否定和部分否定。Not 與and連用表示部分否定,He didn’t explain it clearly and correctly. 一般不會這么說,如果硬要解釋的話,其意為“他解釋得要么不清楚,要么不正確。”全部否定應該用not…or…,no…or…或者neither…nor。
3.這些動詞后要不要介詞?
例9:我缺乏經驗。
×I lack of experience.
√ I lack experience.
√ I’m lacking in experience.
點評:lack 是及物動詞,后面跟賓語時不需要介詞。由于lack 做名詞時多與of連用,所以會使人誤以為lack 作動詞也要用of。做名詞的正確用法:My lack of experience led to the failure. 以下及物動詞的用法與此類似。
×I wish to emphasize on the seriousness of these proposals.
√ I wish to emphasize the seriousness of these proposals.
√ The administration may put more emphasis on spurring economic growth.
×You can contact with us by e-mail.
√ You can contact us by e-mail.
√ Please keep in contact with us by e-mail.
×The angry crowds may influence on the government.
√ The angry crowds may influence the government.
√ Van Gogh had a major influence on the development of modern painting.
√ Painters in the United States have begun to exert great worldwide influence over art.
4. 詞性問題:
——副詞還是連詞?
例10: 他似乎并不想去,另外他的衣服也不夠好。
× He seemed to have no desire to go there, besides, his clothes were not good enough.
√ He seemed to have no desire to go there; besides, his clothes were not good enough.
√ He seemed to have no desire to go there. Besides, his clothes were not good enough.
√ He seemed to have no desire to go there, and besides, his clothes were not good enough.
點評:Besides不是連詞,是副詞,不能連接兩個對等的結構,否則就成了“粘連句”(run-on sentence)。更正的方法有一個口訣“分號+小寫,句號+大寫,逗號+and / but”。除了簡單句,英語句子結構一般有兩種:并列、主從。并列結構必須用三個并列連詞中的一個(and, but, or)連接兩個并列的成分。主從結構可分為兩種,一種是“主句+從句”或“從句+主句”,另一種是“謂語+非謂語”或“非謂語+謂語”。例:“她排著隊焦急地等公汽。”可譯為She stood in the queue and waited for the bus anxiously. (并列),或She waited for the bus anxiously after she stood in the queue. (主句+從句),或She stood in the queue, waiting for the bus anxiously. (謂語+非謂語)以下例句與此類似。
×The price is too high, moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (moreover是副詞)
√ The price is too high; moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (分號+小寫)
√ The price is too high. Moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (句號+大寫)
√ The price is too high, and moreover, the house isn’t in a suitable position. (逗號+and)
×She said it was so, however, she was mistaken. (however是副詞)
√ She said it was so; however, she was mistaken. (分號+小寫)
√ She said it was so. However, she was mistaken. (句號+大寫)
√ She said it was so, but she was mistaken. (逗號+but)
(nevertheless 的詞性和用法與however同)
×On the one hand you have accepted her presents, on the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (on the other hand不是并列連詞)
√ On the one hand you have accepted her presents; on the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (分號+小寫)
√ On the one hand you have accepted her presents. On the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (句號+大寫)
√ On the one hand you have accepted her presents, but on the other (hand) you are rude to the whole family. (逗號+but)
×He didn’t study hard, thus failed the test. (thus是副詞)
√ He didn’t study hard, and thus failed the test. (逗號+and)
×They chatted for a while, then they went to work. (then是副詞)
√ They chatted for a while and then went to work. (逗號+and)
——介詞還是連詞?
例11:隨著中國經濟的快速發展,……
×As the rapid development of China’s economy, ……(此處as 不是介詞)
√ With the rapid development of China’s economy, ……(with+名詞)
√ As China’s economy is developing rapidly, ……(as 是從屬連詞,可引導從句)
——副詞還是動詞?
×You maybe right. (maybe是副詞,不是動詞)
√ You may be right. (may是情態動詞)
√ Maybe you are right. (maybe是副詞)
5. 句型問題
例12:這是一幅倫敦塔橋的照片,用英語怎么說?
×This is a photo of London Tower Bridge. How to say in English?
√ This is a photo of London Tower Bridge. How do you say it in English?
點評: how to do 不是一個獨立存在的問句,只能用作一個句子中的一個成分,如主語、賓語等。此外,say是及物動詞,后面必須接賓語。“用英語怎么說?”類似的英語表達方式還有:Can you say it in English? / Please say it in English. / Put it into English, please. / What is the English equivalent of 倫敦塔橋?
例13:他建議她早點去機場。
×He suggested her to leave early for the airport.
√ He suggested (that) she (should) leave early for the airport.
√ He suggested (her) leaving early for the airport.
點評:suggest 后面可接兩種句型:suggest doing sth. 和suggest+賓語從句。注意:賓語從句中的動詞需用虛擬語氣形式“(should) do”,現代英語中虛擬語氣的should一般都會省去。表示“建議”的另外兩個詞advise和recommend除了可以用以上連個句型外,還可以用不定式做賓語補足語:advise / recommend sb. to do sth.
(三)語音錯誤
1.重讀音節錯誤。以下單詞正確的重讀音節用下劃線標出,括號中是可能會導致前面的詞誤讀的詞,也用下劃線標出重讀音節。ignorant, ignorance (ignore); rhetoric (rhetorical); diligent, diligence (delicious); origin (original), industry (industrial, industrious); influence (influential); narrative (narrate, narrator, narration) ; contribute (contribution); attribute (attributive, attribution); enthusiasm (enthusiastic); supervisor (supervision); graduate (graduation); literature。
復合詞的讀音一般只有一個重音,位于第一個音節:compound, background, bookshop, bathroom, blackboard, homework, workshop, textbook, newspaper。
written['writn]而不是['wraitn]; southern['sn]而不是['san]
(四)語用和文化錯誤
1.稱謂問題。錯誤:Good morning, teacher.
點評:漢語中,幾乎任何頭銜、職務或職業都可用作稱呼語,可帶姓(名),也可不帶姓(名),如(張)股長、(李)木匠、(王)護士。在英語國家,一般性職務和職業都不能作為稱呼語;頭銜則分為社會稱謂(social titles)和職務(學術)頭銜(professional titles),前者主要有Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss,后者主要有President, Chairman, Governor, Senator, Dean, Dr., Professor。如果老師不是博士或教授,學生可說Good morning, Mr. / Mrs. / Ms. / Miss Smith.,如果關系比較密切,也可直呼其名,如Good morning, John / Mary. 中學生也可說Good morning, sir / madam.
2.用yes還是no?回答反義疑問句時要根據實際情況,而不是根據提問的方式回答。
現在設定:你讀過這本書。那么回答應該是:
You have read the book, haven’t you? ——Yes, I have.
You haven’t read the book, have you? ——Yes, I have.
現在設定:你沒有讀過這本書。那么回答應該是:
You have read the book, haven’t you? ——No, I haven’t.
You haven’t read the book, have you? ——No, I haven’t.
3. 關于“中學”和“公路”。不少英語使用者對“中學”和“公路”的英語表達方式及其含義不甚了了。
根據維基百科全書(http://www.wikipedia.org)等資料,英國的中學極少分為初中和高中,一般稱為XXX Secondary School。美國的中學有六年一貫制的(grade 7-12),一般稱為XXX Junior-Senior High School,也有個別六年一貫制的稱為XXX High School(如Gretchen Whitney High School);有的只有初中的稱為XXX Junior High School,多為兩年制(grade 7-8),也有少數三年制的(grade 7-9);有的只有高中的稱XXX High (School)或XXX Senior High School,多為四年制(grade 9-12)。中國六年一貫制的稱為XXX Middle School,初中稱為XXX Junior Middle School,高中稱為XXX Senior Middle School。
Highway 是公路,包括高速公路但不是專指高速公路。美國和加拿大的高速公路說法很多,freeway是免費的,expressway有免費也有收費的,parkway多指風景優美的或通往風景區的高速公路;英國和愛爾蘭的高速公路一般稱為motorway;中國的高速公路多稱為expressway。
(一)語言負遷徙(negative language transfer) 語言負遷徙是指外語學習者或使用者把母語的語言規律帶入外語使用中而引起的,屬于語際錯誤(interlingual error)。[3]201-203如例1、例8、例10以及語用和文化錯誤。(例10同時具備語內錯誤的特點。)
(二)過度泛化(overgeneralization) 過度泛化指的是將學過的目的語的某些規律誤用到其它方面的現象,是一種語內錯誤 (intralingual error)。Brown指出,語內遷移是第二語言學習中的一個主要的負面因素。[3]201-203如例2~7、例9~13。
(三)誤傳誤導 有些錯誤在中國英語教師中存在已久,導致貽誤學生,代代相傳。
關于如何處理“流利”(fluency)與“準確”(accuracy)的關系,眾多學者已開展了廣泛、深入的討論。筆者認為,這一討論不可脫離具體情況。對于即將畢業的英語類碩士研究生和英語教師這一類中高級英語使用者,對“準確” 應更加苛求。他們的錯誤不同于初學者的錯誤,因為這種錯誤往往會堂而皇之地當做一種正確的用法灌輸給初學者,以訛傳訛。此外,對于口語,應更注重“流利”,允許出現一定的“失誤”,但“錯誤”仍是不可容忍的。以上錯誤雖發生在高校某些英語使用者身上,初級英語使用者和學習者也應引以為鑒。
[1]Olson, C. “Proprioception” in Donald Allen & Warren Tallman, eds., The Poetics of the New American Poetry[M]. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1973:182.
[2]Selinker, L. Interlanguage, International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching[M]. London: Longman, 1972:209-231.
[3]Brown, H.D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching[M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.1994.
責任編輯 張吉兵
2017-03-28
10.3969/j.issn.1003-8078.2017.04.21
陳勝(1954-),男,湖北荊州人,廣東外語外貿大學南國商學院英文學院教授,碩士生導師。
H319.3
A
1003-8078(2017)04-0082-05