摘 要:定語從句、名詞從句、狀語從句是英語中重要的學習內容,這部分知識學習的好壞不僅直接關系到語法部分成績的高低,還間接影響到閱讀理解以及大學英語總體水平的提高。文章以區別that和which在定語從句中的異同為主線,在認同兩者在定語從句中的相同之處時,附帶分析that和which在主語從句中的不同之處;在區分that和which在定語從句的差異時,透析關系代詞與關系副詞的雷同以及定語從句與狀語從句之間聯系。
關鍵詞:that which 定語從句 異同
中圖分類號:G642 文獻標識碼:A
文章編號:1004-4914(2008)11-136-02
一、相同之處
1.定語從句中that和which的一個共同點是:
①兩者都是連接主句和從句的關系代詞;②都指事物,意思同先行詞。
例1:The knowledge that/which I picked up abroad is of great use in my work.
例2:Can you tell me the name of the factory which/that you visited last week?
上兩例中that和which功用完全相同,可以置換,都起到連接主從句的作用,都指事物,在例1中指知識,在例2中指工廠。這一點好像學生很清楚,但測試分析結果表明:因為區分不清名詞從句和定語從句,所以他們也搞不明白that和which在定語從句和名詞從句中的作用。
名詞從句中(主語從句、表語從句、賓語從句、同位語從句)中that和which用法不一樣, 不可以置換。that只是銜接主從句的連詞,不指任何事物,沒有意思。
例1:That he was ill yesterday is his excuse for his absence at the meeting.
例2:Who can tell her the news that her dog is missing?
名詞從句(同位語除外)中which是連結主從句的連接代詞,指事物,意思是“哪一個”。
例1:I don’t know which is fit for me.
例2:He bought a book,which is fit for me.
例1中which引導賓語從句,意思是“哪一個”,內容不確切;而例2中which引導定語從句,意思與先行詞相同,指“書”。
2.另一共同之處是:他們在定語從句中承擔一個成分,做主語、表語或賓語。
例1:Don’t eat tomatoes that(which)are green.
例2:Is this the book that(which)you are looking for?
that和which在例1中做主語,在例2中做賓語。
名詞從句中that和which作用不同,不可以置換。that在從句中不做任何成分。
例1:All knows the fact that the earth is round.
例2:My suggestion is that we go except Jim.
例1:that引導同位語從句,例2是that引導表語從句,兩句中that都不做任何成分。
which在從句中做主語、表語、賓語。
例1:Which is chosen is undecided.
例2:I asked which you liked.
例1中which引導主語從句,從句中which做主語;例2中which引導賓語從句,which在從句中做賓語。
3.that和which的省略問題。
定語從句中,that和which擔任主語和表語時不可省略,做賓語時可省。
例1:I prefer to read the book that/which was bought last Monday.
例2:Our hometown is not the town that/which it was.
例3:Can I read the notes(that/which)you made yesterday?
在名詞從句中,that和which作用不同,不可以置換。that引導的主語、表語、賓語、同位語從句,只有賓語從句中that可省。
例1:That he will come is uncertain.
例2:I don’t doubt(that)he can speak both English and French.
which引導的名詞從句中,一律不可省。
例1:Which is chosen is undecided.
例2:I asked which you liked.
4.the same——as,such——as.
先行詞中如果出現the same和such時,that和which都不可以使用,只能由as引導。
例1:This is such a film as we should see.
例2:The same thing happened to Jack as to Jane.
二、不同之處
盡管限制性定語從句中that和which都可以用于指事物,但有些事物比如說nothing就要求它的定語從句的關系代詞是that而不是which。相反,非限制性定語從句中關系代詞只能使用which。因此有必要進一步分析that和which諸多差異,從而進一步深化對他們的理解。
(一)只能用that的情況
1.先行詞為不定代詞。
例1:You should hand in all(that)you have.
例2:We haven’t got much(that)we can offer you.
2.先行詞由序數詞擔任或先行詞中有序數詞做修飾語。
例1:The Spiderman is the first American film(that)I’ve ever seen.
例2:That was the last chance(that)they had.
3.先行詞中由形容詞最高級來修飾或由形容詞最高級來擔任。
例1:This is the best that has been used against our environment.
例2:Hainan is the second largest island(that)you can find in China.
4.先行詞中出現the only,the very.
例1:MP3 is the very present(that)my parents gave me for my birthday.
例2:The only thing(that)we can do is to give you some advice.
5.當先行詞既指事物又指人時。
因為which只指事物,who只指人,唯有that既可指物又可指人。
例1:Do you know the persons and things that they are talking about in the hall?
例2:The bike and the rider that had run over an old man were taken to the police station.
(二)只能用which的情況
1.非限制性定語從句中。
①指某一事物。
例1:London,which is the capital of U.K,is located along River Thames.
例2:Who Moves My Cheese?which is written by Spencer Johnson, will be published again.
②指整個句子。
例1:He didn’t tell anything about it,which upset me.
例2:The test result was very good,which we didn’t expect.
③限制性定語從句與非限制性定語從句的區別。
例1:He lives in the apartment which he bought last year.
例2:He lives in the apartment,which he bought last year.
例1例2一句是限制性定語從句,另一句是非限制性定語從句,兩句表面上看區別不大,只是一個逗號而已,但是邏輯上兩者有著本質的差別。例1譯文:他住在他去年買的公寓里。言外之意:他有好幾套公寓,現住處只是其中之一。例2譯文:他住在公寓里,這所公寓是他去年買的。話外之音:他住的是公寓不是別墅,而且只有一個住處。
仔細觀察例1、例2就會發現兩者的區別:①從翻譯上看,限制性定語從句要譯成“……的”放在先行詞“公寓”前,使此公寓與其他公寓區分開來,即對此公寓進行限定。非限制性定語從句要譯成與主句平行的并列句,即譯成另外一個簡單句,放在先行詞“公寓”之后,所起作用只是補充說明而不是限定。②從邏輯上看,使用限制性定語從句是因為先行詞指同一類事物中有好幾個,而不是一個,如例1指好幾所公寓,所以要用限制性定語從句對先行詞進行限定,區別出彼此。假如先行詞所指事物只有一個,如例2,他只有一所公寓,那就無需限定,此時要用非限制性定語從句。
如果先行詞指獨一無二的事物,再用限制性定語從句,就會使全句滑稽可笑。
例1:She met her mum in the store who was shopping.
例2:She met her mum in the store,who was shopping.
例1譯文:她在商店里遇到她那個正在購物的母親。聽起來好像是她有幾個母親,所以這是個錯句。例2譯文:她在商店遇到自己的母親,她母親當時正在購物。加上一個逗號后,使定語從句變成非限制性,句子意思就理順了。
2.介詞+關系代詞。
這種結構中關系代詞只能用which,而不能用that,因為that之前不能加介詞。
例1:Could you lend me your pencils which/that you draw with?
例2:She took me to the beach along which she used to have a walk.
3.名詞+介詞+關系代詞。
例1:China has many islands,the largest of which is Taiwan.
例2:The old man raised 15 chickens this year,none of which survived the bird’s flu.
如果名詞+介詞+關系代詞是以“名詞+of+which”形式出現,那么名詞+of+which=whose+名詞。
例1:Marie lives in an old house,the windows of which face the sea.
例2:Marie lives in an old house,whose windows face the sea.
例1與例2語義相同,只因which是名詞,不能修飾名詞,而需要和介詞of組成介詞短語做名詞windows的定語,而whose是形容詞性,可以直接放在名詞windows前做定語。
4.定語從句中關系代詞與關系副詞的置換。
①關系代詞與關系副詞(介詞+關系代詞=關系副詞)。
關系代詞與關系副詞(when, where, how)都可以在定語從句中表示時間、地點和方式方法,不同的是兩者因為詞性不同承擔的語法成分也不同。
例1:He came at the very time when we needed his help.
例2:He Zcame at the very time at which we needed his help.
例1、例2是表示時間的定語從句。例1用關系副詞when連接主從句,when是副詞,在從句中可以做狀語。例2用關系代詞which連接,指先行詞time,是名詞,而名詞一般不做狀語,所以which前加上介詞at使之變成介詞短語at which在從句中做狀語。由此可見,關系副詞=介詞+關系代詞,但是到底用哪個介詞要視先行詞而定。比如表示時刻要用介詞at,3點15分用英語表達就是at3:15,這就是為什么例2要用at which的原因。
②定語從句?狀語從句?名詞從句?
例1:He graduated from high school in 1945,when the Second World War ended.
例2:He graduated from high school,when the Second World War ended.
例3:This is the place where the new city lies.
例4:This is where the new city lies.
例5:I’ll show you a store where you might buy all you need.
例6:I’ll show you where you might buy all you need.
例1例2是一對,例1中when引導的是非限制性定語從句,因為when是對先行詞(1945年)做進一步說明;而例2中when引導狀語從句,因為整個從句在主句中做狀語。所以判斷一個從句是否是定語從句也很簡單,要看該從句前有無相關的先行詞,如where從句前是否有表示地點的名詞。以例2為例when之前盡管有名詞,但此名詞是地點名詞,與時間無關,所以不可能是when的先行詞。
如法炮制,發現例3中where從句是定語從句;例4中where從句的判斷要看它在主句中的位置,位于系詞后,自然是表語從句。
再看例5例6,例5中where引導的是定語從句,修飾store;而例6中where從句不是定語從句,因為you不是一個表示地點的先行詞,所以you與where從句之間不存在修飾不修飾的關系。where從句也不是狀語從句,因為邏輯上說不通。這個where從句是賓語從句,因為show是一個要求雙賓的動詞,即show somebody something,where引導的從句正好位于直接賓語something的地方。
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(作者單位:鄭州大學外語學院 河南鄭州 450052)
(責編:紀毅)