胡梅紅
(常熟理工學(xué)院 外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院,江蘇 常熟 215500)
英語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)法銜接是英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)篇的非結(jié)構(gòu)性特征,揭示的是句間不同成分之間的語(yǔ)義和邏輯聯(lián)系。高級(jí)英語(yǔ)閱讀中,讀者首先應(yīng)該抓住整篇文章的主題和中心思想,理清整篇文章的思路和結(jié)構(gòu)布局,了解作者的觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度和寫(xiě)作風(fēng)格;而涉及到具體語(yǔ)篇中的細(xì)節(jié)問(wèn)題時(shí),則需要讀者通過(guò)了解該語(yǔ)篇內(nèi)部的上下銜接,理解不同銜接手段的作用與意義。高校英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)的高年級(jí)學(xué)生應(yīng)學(xué)習(xí)和掌握這些語(yǔ)法銜接手段,這對(duì)他們更有效地進(jìn)行閱讀理解有重要意義。本文擬從英語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)法銜接手段來(lái)探討高級(jí)英語(yǔ)的閱讀理解,希望對(duì)高校英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)高年級(jí)學(xué)生的閱讀理解有所啟迪和幫助。
韓禮德和哈桑(Halliday&Hasan)夫婦在《英語(yǔ)的銜接》(Cohesion in English)[1]一書(shū)中把英語(yǔ)的銜接手段分成兩大類(lèi):語(yǔ)法銜接和詞匯銜接,并對(duì)它們作了全面的描述。本文以此為理論框架,就英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)篇中的語(yǔ)法銜接作較為詳細(xì)的分析,并提供豐富的英美現(xiàn)代散文名篇中的實(shí)例(少數(shù)例子選自現(xiàn)代小說(shuō)和古代散文),讓高年級(jí)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)和掌握這些語(yǔ)法銜接手段,并根據(jù)銜接紐帶在語(yǔ)篇中形成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)來(lái)了解語(yǔ)篇發(fā)展的脈絡(luò),認(rèn)識(shí)語(yǔ)篇的整體意義和微觀聯(lián)系。英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法銜接手段主要包括照應(yīng)、替代、省略和連接。
英語(yǔ)中的照應(yīng)(reference)是指“語(yǔ)篇中某些成分自己不能解釋自己,而是用另一成分作為參照來(lái)作解釋。”[1]31有關(guān)成分的參照點(diǎn)存在于語(yǔ)篇之中,就是內(nèi)指照應(yīng)(endophoric reference/endophora);有關(guān)成分的參照點(diǎn)存在于語(yǔ)境中,就是外指照應(yīng)(exophoric reference/exophora)。在內(nèi)指照應(yīng)中,可以在上文中找到參照點(diǎn)的,就是回指(anaphoric reference/anaphora);在下文找到參照點(diǎn)的,就是下指(cataphoric reference/cataphora)。在詞匯語(yǔ)法層次上,照應(yīng)主要由語(yǔ)法項(xiàng)目來(lái)體現(xiàn),分成三種:人稱(chēng)照應(yīng)(personal reference)、指示照應(yīng)(demonstrative reference)和比較照應(yīng)(comparative reference)。如下例人稱(chēng)照應(yīng)和指示照應(yīng):
例1:I did meet an undeniably grade-one thinker in my first year at Oxford.I was looking over a small bridge in Magdalen Deer Park,and a tiny mustached and hatted figure came and stood by my side.He was a German who had just fled from the Nazis to Oxford as a temporary refuge.His name was Einstein.[2]239
例2:At the age of eighty my mother had her last bad fall,and after that her mind wandered free through time.Some days she went to weddings and funerals that had taken place half a century earlier.On others she presided over family dinners cooked on Sunday afternoons for children who were now gray with age.Through all this she lay in bed but moved across time,traveling among the dead decades with a speed and ease beyond the gift of physical science.[3]210
例1選自英國(guó)小說(shuō)家和詩(shī)人、諾貝爾文學(xué)獎(jiǎng)獲得者威廉·杰拉爾德·戈?duì)柖〉摹端伎甲鳛橐环N業(yè)余愛(ài)好》一文,此語(yǔ)篇中“He”、“His”是人稱(chēng)代詞,指代上文的“a tiny mustached and hatted figure”,兩者之間構(gòu)成人稱(chēng)照應(yīng)關(guān)系。此外,“He”和“His name”分別是這兩個(gè)小句的主位,即語(yǔ)篇談?wù)摰脑掝},對(duì)引出述位中的新信息“Einstein”(愛(ài)因斯坦)起到了很好的作用。
例2是美國(guó)專(zhuān)欄作家、普利策新聞獎(jiǎng)和傳記獎(jiǎng)獲得者拉塞爾·貝克《遙想當(dāng)年》開(kāi)始的一個(gè)自然小節(jié)。文中指示代詞“that”和“this”都是回指,“that”指上句中的“her last bad fall”;“this”指上文第二和第三個(gè)句子中母親的思想神游。指示代詞“that”和“this”在此語(yǔ)篇中的運(yùn)用起到了很好的銜接作用,幫助讀者更好地理解上下文。英語(yǔ)中人稱(chēng)照應(yīng)和指示照應(yīng)是最常用的語(yǔ)法銜接手段,也比漢語(yǔ)中更常見(jiàn),因此若英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者理解并掌握它們的使用,將對(duì)英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)篇的閱讀和理解起到很有效的作用。
英語(yǔ)中的照應(yīng)還包括比較照應(yīng),它可再分為總體比較(general comparison)和具體比較(particular comparison)。總體比較是就事物的相似(likeness)或不相似(unlikeness)來(lái)進(jìn)行的比較,并不涉及具體的特性;而具體比較是就事物的數(shù)量(quantity)或質(zhì)量(quality)而進(jìn)行的比較。但比較照應(yīng)與一般語(yǔ)法中的句內(nèi)形容詞或副詞比較級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)不同。“只有當(dāng)表達(dá)比較意義的詞語(yǔ)與語(yǔ)篇上下文中的另一語(yǔ)言成分之間具有相互參照或相互解釋的關(guān)系時(shí),才能構(gòu)成比較照應(yīng)。”[4]27由總體比較在語(yǔ)篇中構(gòu)成照應(yīng)關(guān)系的,用形容詞“same”、“identical”和“equal”或副詞“identically”來(lái)表示“認(rèn)同”;用形容詞“similar”、“additional”或副詞“similarly”、“l(fā)ikewise”、“so”和“such”等來(lái)表示“總體相似”;用“other”、“different”和“else”或副詞“differently”和“otherwise”來(lái)表示不同。例如:
例3:I saw only two processions—one was the Fire Brigade preceded by the Police,the other was the Police preceded by the Fire Brigade.[5]235
例4:America is the noisiest country that ever existed.One is waked up in the morning,not by the singing of the nightingale,but by the steam whistle.It is surprising that the sound practical sense of the Americans does not reduce this intolerable noise.All Art depends upon exquisite and delicate sensibility,and such continual turmoil must ultimately be destructive of the musical faculty.[5]228-229
例5:The Westerner,on the other hand,would fight with an equal tenacity for the broader concept of society.[6]164
例6:And Dr King also said,“We must work unceasingly to lift this nation to a higher destiny,to a new plateau of compassion.”[7]263
例3、例4和例5都是總體比較,而例6則是具體比較。例3和例4均選自英國(guó)唯美作家?jiàn)W斯卡·王爾德《美國(guó)印象》中的句子。例3中的“the other”的所指意義是以上文“two processions”和“one”為參照點(diǎn)的,在語(yǔ)篇中具有銜接功能。例4中的“such”所指意義是以上文中的“the steam of whistle”為參照點(diǎn)的,屬于內(nèi)指。例5選自美國(guó)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)歷史學(xué)家Bruce Catton的《格朗特和李:對(duì)比研究》一文,句中“The Westerner”指美國(guó)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)時(shí)期北方聯(lián)邦軍隊(duì)的總司令格朗特(Grand),“equal”與語(yǔ)境中談?wù)摰哪戏桨盥?lián)政府軍將軍李(Lee)之間構(gòu)成了比較照應(yīng)關(guān)系,說(shuō)明“The Westerner”與“Lee”一樣都具有“堅(jiān)忍不拔”(tenacity)的品質(zhì)。這是典型的外指照應(yīng)。例6選自美國(guó)議員愛(ài)德華·肯尼迪的演講《時(shí)刻已到》,其中“higher”和“a new plateau of compassion”形成比較照應(yīng),使上下文更為緊密地銜接在一起。
英語(yǔ)中的替代(substitution)是指用一個(gè)替代詞去取代語(yǔ)篇中的某一個(gè)成分,被替代的成分也可以在上下文中找到。英語(yǔ)中的替代主要有三種類(lèi)型:名詞性替代(nominal substitution)、動(dòng)詞性替代(verbal substitution)和小句性替代(clausal substitution)。替代與指代的主要區(qū)分是:“指代是語(yǔ)義關(guān)系(a relation on the semantic level);而替代是語(yǔ)法和詞匯關(guān)系(a relation on the level of grammar and vocabulary)。”[1]89
英語(yǔ)中的替代在語(yǔ)篇中不僅起到不可忽視的銜接上下文的作用,而且有避免重復(fù)和羅嗦的功能,使語(yǔ)篇產(chǎn)生簡(jiǎn)潔、緊湊的效果。在高級(jí)英語(yǔ)閱讀中,如果英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者不能在上下文中正確地確定被替代的成分,就會(huì)造成理解上的誤差,甚至是閱讀障礙。請(qǐng)看以下四個(gè)包含替代的語(yǔ)篇:
例7:There had always been a fierceness in her.It showed in that angry,challenging thrust of the chin when she issued an opinion,and a great one she had always been for issuing opinions.[3]211
例8:I had some very good friends who stood by me,and still do.But my acquaintances vanished,taking the girls with them.[2]241
例9:The real trouble about women is that they must always go on trying to adapt themselves to men’s theories of women.As they always have done.[2]58
例10:The first Rockefeller said in a famous speech:“The American Beauty rose can be produced in the splendor and fragrance which bring cheer to its beholder only by sacrificing the early buds which grow up around it.And so it is in economic life.It is merely the working out of a law of nature and a law of God.”[3]24
例7中“a great one”的“one”一字就是名詞性替代,被替代的成分是第一句中的主語(yǔ)“a fierceness”(嚴(yán)厲),讀者由此了解到作者在回憶母親年輕時(shí)“發(fā)表意見(jiàn)時(shí)總帶著那股嚴(yán)厲勁”(and a great one she had always been for issuing opinions)。例8中的“do”是動(dòng)詞性替代,替代對(duì)象為“stood by me”。例9選自英國(guó)小說(shuō)家和詩(shī)人勞倫斯的散文《給她一個(gè)模式》,其中“have done”也是動(dòng)詞性替代,代替上文中的“go on trying to adapt themselves to men’s theories of women”。兩例動(dòng)詞性替代時(shí)態(tài)均有變化。例10選自曾任肯尼迪和約翰遜兩屆美國(guó)政府顧問(wèn)的哈佛大學(xué)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)教授約翰·加爾布雷斯的《怎樣從我們良心上驅(qū)走貧困》一文,語(yǔ)篇中的“so”是小句性替代,替代上文“be produced… which grow up around it”,如果讀者能理解“so”的意義,就有助于理解這個(gè)語(yǔ)篇的意義。在此語(yǔ)篇中,作者引用洛克菲勒的話,用紅玫瑰早期生長(zhǎng)時(shí)必須剪除其周?chē)男』ɡ俨拍苁蛊溟L(zhǎng)得光彩奪目、芳香四溢的規(guī)律來(lái)說(shuō)明經(jīng)濟(jì)生活中的規(guī)律也是如此(And so it is in economic life)。
英語(yǔ)中的省略(ellipsis)指的是“把語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)中的某個(gè)成分省去不提。它是為了避免重復(fù),使表達(dá)簡(jiǎn)練、緊湊、清晰的一種修辭方式。”[4]60語(yǔ)篇中的某個(gè)成分或某些成分被省去,被省去的成分一般都能在語(yǔ)篇中找到,因此省略也被稱(chēng)為零替代(substitution by zero)。省略作為一種句法層面的縮略現(xiàn)象,“不僅可以避免重復(fù)、突出新信息,而且也是語(yǔ)篇銜接的一種重要語(yǔ)法手段。”[4]61省略也可分為名詞性省略(nominal ellipsis)、動(dòng)詞性省略(verbal ellipsis)和小句性省略(clausal ellipsis)。請(qǐng)看例11至例14:
例11:“ I’ll phone you back,”I said and hung up,and when I did phone back she was all right,although she wasn’t all right,of course,and we all knew she wasn’t.[3]211
例12:It was such a foolish,innocent idea,but one thinks of parents differently from other people.Other people can become frail and break,but not parents.[3]216
例13:Histories make men wise;poets witty;the mathematics subtle;natural philosophy deep;moral grave;logic and rhetoric able to contend.(Of Studies by Bacon)[8]138-139
例14:Presently he said:“Say,Tom,let me whitewash a little.”Tom considered;was about to consent;but he altered his mind:“No,no;I reckon it wouldn’t hardly do,Ben.”(The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain)[9]18
英語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)省略最大的不同是漢語(yǔ)的省略以主語(yǔ)的省略為主,而英語(yǔ)中的主語(yǔ)是不能省略的。例11中省去的成分是表語(yǔ)“all right”,而完整的句子應(yīng)該是“and we all knew she wasn’t all right.”例12最后一句中省略的成分是小句“can become frail and break”,完整的句字應(yīng)是“but parents can not become frail and break.”例13省去的是實(shí)義動(dòng)詞(lexical verb)“make”,實(shí)義動(dòng)詞的省略在英語(yǔ)中很常見(jiàn),被稱(chēng)為“右省略”。例14上文故事描寫(xiě)湯姆在刷籬笆,他正想盡辦法讓小伙伴幫他干這“有趣”的活,此對(duì)話在“a little”后省去了名詞“fence”,名詞性省略將名詞詞組中的修飾成分(a little)提升為中心詞。
英語(yǔ)中的連接(conjunction)表示的邏輯關(guān)系主要有加合(additive)、轉(zhuǎn)折(adversative)、因果(causal)和時(shí)間(temporal)。加合是“指講完或?qū)懲暌痪湓捴螅€有擴(kuò)展余地,可以在此基礎(chǔ)上再添加某些補(bǔ)充信息。”[4]75轉(zhuǎn)折是“指后一句的意義與前一句的意義截然相反。”[10]76因果是“指以各種不同方式體現(xiàn)的原因與效果的關(guān)系”。[10]76“時(shí)間即反映事件發(fā)生的先后順序或不同事件同時(shí)發(fā)生的連接語(yǔ)義。”[10]76請(qǐng)參照例15和例16:
例15:Trevelyan always stressed writing for the general reader as opposed to writing just for fellow scholars because he knew that when you write for the public you have to be clear and you have to be interesting and these are the two criteria which make for good writing.[3]56
例16:Tom lay thinking.Presently it occurred to him that he wished he was sick;then he could stay home from school.Here was a vague possibility.He canvassed his system.No ailment was found,and he investigated again.This time he thought he could detect colicky symptoms,and he began to encourage them with considerable hope.But they soon grew feeble and presently died wholly away.He reflected further.Suddenly he discovered something.One of his upper teeth was loose.[9]42
例15這個(gè)語(yǔ)篇選自曾二次獲普利策獎(jiǎng)的美國(guó)歷史學(xué)家芭芭拉·塔奇曼的《藝術(shù)家型的歷史學(xué)家》一文。語(yǔ)篇中作者引用了英國(guó)歷史學(xué)家、劍橋大學(xué)教授特里維廉(Trevelyan)的觀點(diǎn),語(yǔ)篇中“because”表示因果關(guān)系;兩個(gè)“and”都是表示遞進(jìn)關(guān)系,第一個(gè)“and”補(bǔ)充說(shuō)明為大眾寫(xiě)作的第二標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是“you have to be interesting”,第二個(gè)“and”進(jìn)一步說(shuō)明這兩個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是判斷好作品的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。例16選自馬克·吐溫的名著《湯姆·索亞歷險(xiǎn)記》第六章第二小節(jié)的開(kāi)始部分,那是周一早上,湯姆想盡辦法在自己身上找不舒服以此為逃學(xué)的理由。語(yǔ)篇中“But”表示轉(zhuǎn)折,“Presently”、“then”、“again”、“This time”、“soon”和“Suddenly”等都表示時(shí)間關(guān)系。
本文通過(guò)摘取英語(yǔ)名篇散文中的大量例子來(lái)說(shuō)明四種英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法銜接手段,即照應(yīng)、替代、省略和連接,從而揭示英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)篇中的非結(jié)構(gòu)性特征及其語(yǔ)義和邏輯關(guān)系。高校英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)高年級(jí)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)并掌握這四種語(yǔ)法銜接手段,可幫助他們更有效地提高高級(jí)英語(yǔ)閱讀和理解能力。
[1]Halliday M A K,Hasan R.Cohesion in English[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research press,2001.
[2]楊自伍.英國(guó)文化選本(下冊(cè))[C].上海:華東師范大學(xué)出版社,1996.
[3]楊自伍.美國(guó)文化選本(下冊(cè))[C].上海:華東師范大學(xué)出版社,1996.
[4]朱永生,鄭立信,苗興偉.英漢語(yǔ)篇銜接手段對(duì)比研究[M].上海外教育出版社,2001.
[5]楊自伍.英國(guó)散文名篇欣賞[C].上海:上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社,1995.
[6]李觀儀.新編英語(yǔ)教程(6)[M].上海:上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社,2004.
[7]裴妮.20世紀(jì)著名演講文錄(下)[M].北京:中國(guó)對(duì)外翻譯出版公司,2003.
[8]Bacon Francis.Essays[M].上海:上海外語(yǔ)與研究出版社,1998.
[9]Mark Twain.The Adventures of Tom Sawyer[M].北京:外文出版社,1993.
[10]劉宓慶.新編漢英對(duì)比與翻譯[M].北京:中國(guó)對(duì)外翻譯出版公司,2006.