Themes in Confucian Thought

HumanityIn Confucianism， human beings are teachable， improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one’s life， if necessary， either passively or actively， for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren (仁， Humanity) and yiC (義on，fRui cgihutse’ocuos nnecsesp).t of humaneness is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the Ethic of reciprocity， or the Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you.”Rén also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks rén， Confucianism holds， it will be difficult if not impossible for his subjects to behave humanely. Rén is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler， exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects.RitualIn Confucianism， the acts of everyday life are considered ritual (禮; lǐ). Rituals are not necessarily regimented or arbitrary practices， but the routines that people often engage in， knowingly or unknowingly， during the normal course of their lives. Shaping the rituals in a way that leads to a content and healthy society， ap nu dr p t oo s ce o on f t e Cnt o nan fu d c h ia e nalt phhyi l po es oo pp lhe y，.“is R i ot nee”(禮; lǐT) hise aCn hidienaels feo r cmha oraf cstoecri afl o n r o“rrmite.s”or“ritual”， previously had the religious meaning of “sacrifice”. Its Confucian meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of each person’s correct place in society. Externally， ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder， who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Internally， rites indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them.LoyaltyLoyalty (忠; zhōng) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane. It is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius’ students belonged， because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler’s civil service. Like filial piety， however， loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China.In later ages， however， emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler， and less on the ruler’s obligations to the ruled.Loyalty was also an extension of one’s duties to friends， family， and spouse. Loyalty to one’s family came first， then to one’s spouse， then to one’s ruler， and lastly to one’s friends. Loyalty was considered one of the greater human virtues.Filial piety“Filial piety” (孝; xiào) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the dead (including even remote ancestors). The term “filial” (meaning “of a child”) characterizes the respect that a child， originally a son， should show to his parents.Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also extended to the dead， where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the veneration of ancestors. The only relationship where respect for elders wasn’t stressed was the Friend to Friend relationship. In all other relationships， high reverence was held for elders.The idea of Filial piety influenced the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had committed the crime against a parent， while fathers often exercised enormous power over their children. It’s differentiated in other relationships much as the same. At the time it lean overly to parent side.RelationshipsRelationships are central to Confucianism. Particular duties arise from one’s particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders， and as a senior in relation to younger siblings， students， and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence， seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors.Social harmony—the great goal of Confucianism—therefore results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order， and playing his or her part well.Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (孔子Kǒng zǐ or K’ung tzu， lit. “Master Kong”， 551–478 BC). It is a complex system of moral， social， political， philosophical， and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia.