Analysis on Usage of the Chinese Character De(的) in the Attributive-head Relationship from the Perspective of Cognitive Theory

【Abstract】De (的) is the most widely used Chinese character in the Chinese language. Most Chinese language learners find it largely elusive. By carrying out a detailed analysis on whether attributive adjectives and nouns they modify can detach from each other in time or space, the writer attempts to explore into the usage of De in the attributive-head relationship from the perspective of cognitive theory,and give out suggestions about how to teach it correctly.

【Key words】De; Attributive-head relationship; detachment of words and meanings; cognition; the Chinese language

【作者簡介】張偉(1983-)，男，漢族，河南信陽人，嵩山少林武術職業學院講師，碩士研究生，研究方向：漢語教學、中國文化傳播。

Part 1 Raising questions

When it comes to the attributive-head relationship in Chinese teaching, De (的) is inevitable. Native Chinese speakers can use the word properly, while it is highly unlikely for overseas Chinese learners,even the learners could understand and make sentences. However, Grammatically incorrect sentences, are common occurrences in their speaking and writing practices, such as:我喜歡她的微笑樣子。他要你書的包！我的大學的校園的夜晚很漂亮。商人常常騙我，所以花錢的很多。By presenting the four instances above, the writer intends to propose one question: Is there a simple way to make teaching Chinese expressions with-or-without De straightforward?

Part 2 Theoretical basis & hypothesis

De has two forms in Chinese -with De and without De, in the attributive-head relationship. Some scholars (Cui Xiliang 1992; Zhan Weidong 1998; Zhang Yunyun 2013) argued that the use of De-free depends on semantic narrative classification and pragmatic restrictions when things are perceived. Their proposed principle of monosyllable-without De and multisyllable-with De has been widely accepted and recognized. However, Such principle does not work in explaining the meaning of 坦桑尼亞人(Tanzanian). Shen Jiaxuan (1995) stated that De changes boundless concept into concept with bound,but how do we define bound in words teaching? Mr. Lu Jianming (2003) argued that “the relationship between the unit of language structures and the unit of conceptual structures match with each other.”

The intimacy between these two units determines the usage of De, which was regarded as convincingly valuable by the writer. It is unnecessary or even counterproductive to introduce these Abstract rules or notions to Chinese learners, however it serves as a new approach to make “bound” or “intimacy” a factor determining the relationship of a modifier and a head in time or space, as there are always and only three relationships in time and space, namely inclusive, non-inclusive and partially inclusive, which forms the basis of usage of De in this paper.

Languages are the most common means of communication, which relates meaning and sound(words). Noam Chomsky suggested that “analyzing principles and processing of sentence structures in languages can reveal the underlying cognition that manipulates linguistic rules” (Chomsky1957). So what are the cognitive rules that underlie the voices (words)and that effectively manipulate, organize and process vocabulary and sentences?

Part 3 Three new rules of usage of De

There are two components in the attributive-head relationship, the attributive adjective and the head. For convenience, the attributive adjective in this paper is signified by A, while the head by B, which exclusively refers to nouns or nominal phrases with 3 forms. A always points to B without any exception in speaking practices. It should be noted that A or B links to nothing else but their sole meaning. The writer picks everyday expressions as instances and divides them into 15 groups, from which one word or two are selected and subjected to analysis.

3.1 Without a De (a hyphen is added, written as A-B in Chinese)

Group A: AB，A=B=AB

紅-花? 洋-鬼子? 白-襯衫 大-卡車

紅花:紅is A, meaning red color, and 花is B, meaning flower，like a carrier in space. The color of physical feature remains unchanged throughout the whole flower, so the physical feature 紅and the carrier花are un-detachable (A=B) in time and space, that is to say,the two components are the whole to other(A=B=AB).

Group B: AB，A ?AB

桌子-腿? 車-頭 杯-蓋? 勺子-柄

桌子腿:桌子is A, which is commonly perceived to have four legs, and腿 is B, which is a part of 桌子. From A to AB, it is from the whole to the part, which in space is presented as A includes AB. The components are un-detachable. Locking A means locking B(A?AB), and vice versa.

Group C: AB，without A then without AB

頭發-梢? 指甲-蓋? 腳趾-頭? 半山-腰

頭發梢: As we turn our gaze from頭發to頭發梢, in space it is similar to group B, which focuses on the end tail B of hair A. The difference lies in the nuance that words in Group B are part-whole relationship, but words in Group C are inseparable from each other. They are, therefore, restricted to each other and they do not have a second possibility.

Group D: AB，without AB then without A

我-媽? 誰-姐姐? 他-大爺? 你-自己

我媽: 我is A; 我媽is AB. When 我modifies 媽or媽媽, the sole un-severable relationship between我and我媽is highlighted. Without my mother AB, there would be no me A. This is an unaltered law.

Group E: AB，A ? AB

我們-學校? 坦桑尼亞-人 省-廳? 教育-局

我們學校: 我們is A, and學校is B. The collocation AB is to highlight the sole registration relationship between 我們and學校. Locking 我們 means locking學校(A? AB).This is different from 我們的學校, which is meant to make a comparison with others, highlighting A 我們not你們(Referring to Group N).

Group F: AB，B=AB

三斤-魚? 捎個-信兒 很多-人? 這次-考試

三斤魚: 三斤is A, meaning the weight of something.魚is B, here which are fishes in space. In the speaker’s cognition, no matter how many fishes there are, at the moment these fishes he wants can be weighed as a whole (B=AB),that is any portion of B can’t be removed to express the meaning of the whole A. Locking A means locking AB.

Group G: AB，AB ? B

語文-老師? 紙-箱子? 歷史-問題? 漢語-教室

語文老師: 語文is A, and 老師is B. As we express AB,語文A narrows down the extent of 老師B in space. Once the concept of 語文老師forms, other concepts like 數學老師would be impossible. AB and B have the same features (AB? B)and once AB forms, it is exclusively fixed and stable.

Conclusions from Group A to Group G:

Conclusion 1, when A and B are inclusive in time or space, A-B indicate the overlapping parts and they are un-detachable.

Conclusion 2, when A and B is non-inclusive in time or space but they have some certain connection, A-B indicate the connecting parts and they are un-detachable.

3.2 With a De

Group H: A的B， A? B and A?B

三斤的魚? 一寸的釘子? 一頭的汗? 百分之七十的職工

三斤的魚: 三斤is A ,Three Jin-s.魚is B, fish. When三斤with a De is used to modify魚, its meaning is “The weight of this fish itself is three Jin-s.” 三斤is just a weighing unit, and if it can be detached from魚, the weight of魚itself still remains unchanged. Compared to the instance “三斤魚”in Group F, the meaning of Group H changes. That is to say when a A can be detached from an object B without affecting B, a Dei is appeared in between, namely A的B = B.

Group I: A的B，A? B且A?B

一筐一筐的西紅柿? 一撥一撥的人群一列一列的火車

一筐一筐的西紅柿：一筐一筐is A, and西紅柿is B. The double numerals are represented as 一X一X in the form, which is a unit of measurement in space, and it is seen as a whole to indicate a large number of something. Although 西紅柿is put into a筐, but each 西紅柿 is detached from the 筐in space, then a De is appeared to connect A-B.

Group J: A的B，A? B and A?B

媽媽的手套誰的地圖水的用途? 一個人的生活

媽媽的手套：媽媽is A, and手套is B, which is two totally different concepts that are completely detachable in space or time. As is shown by other phrases in this group, when A and B are detachable, a Dei is appeared in between to indicate connection for the new concept AB.

Group K: A的B，A? B且A?B

好吃的菜? 鮮明的形象? 流利的英語? 漂亮的裙子

好吃的菜: 好吃is A, and菜is B. A indicates psychological cognitive experience after taste tense, and B indicates an object. Since an object and cognitive experience belong to different cognitive categories in space, they are actually separated from each other. A De is appeared to connect psychological activity with taste tense.

Based on the analysis above of Group H and Group K, a finding made that as A and B belong to different categories in space or time, a De is needed in between forming A的B to introduce the new concept A-B.

Group L: A的B，A ? B and A?B，and A?A1+A2+A3, and A1≠A2≠A3

會吃螞蚱的魚? 最貴重的禮物非常好的創意

會吃螞蚱的魚:會吃螞蚱 is A, and 魚is B. In the component A are three notions with independent meanings, namely 會 being A1, 吃being A2 and 螞蚱 being A3. The rule of word order dictates that a modal verb (A1) is placed before a regular verb (A2) without any parenthetical expressions.A2 and A3 show a verb-object relationship without any parenthetical expressions. When A1, A2 and A3 forms A in a proper order, A has a certain of ability, and that is 會吃螞蚱. B is a kind of animal and it is a known fact that B does not have such an ability as A. As A and B have to be constructed a certain relationship in space or time, a De is used to connect them to form a new concept.

Group M: A的B, A?B ,and A6=B,A6?A5?A4?A3?A2?A1,and A3的A4.

一件非常鮮艷的紅底花絲綢襯衫。

To analyze this instance, let us assume 一件is A1, 非常is A2, 鮮艷is A3, 紅底is A4, 花is A5, 絲綢is A6, and襯衫is B. With one more modifier to the head B, the extent of B expands and forms a new bigger object until A3, an adjective 鮮艷, which is a “visual awareness”. A4紅底花絲綢襯衫indicates a whole object. As the “visual awareness” and an object fall to two totally different concepts, a De is appeared to connect them to “forge” an attributive-head relationship. The six modifiers in the left side become neat after the rule of word order applies, which is a telling example of the principle of Chinese people’s understanding of objects, i.e. from the macro (the whole) to the micro (the part).

Then it can be proved that：

. When a modifier A containing A1、A2、A3……An (n≥1) is used to modify a head B, the n words are random determiners or adjectives that fall into different conceptual categories. They may have completely detachable or adhesive relationships in time or space. A De is needed if the detachable relationship occurs between any two components (An De An+1) to ensure grammatically correct and smooth expressions, which is conclusive proof of usage of De in pragmatics.

. With an addition of a De, A and De together becomes an attributive word, and a speaker would have to include the objective requirement of languages following the chronological chain, which retains the unity of De in space or time.

. In their positions, adjectives with De(非常鮮艷的)are placed in front of adjectives without De(紅底花絲綢).At this point, distances between attributives and the head are abundantly clear.

3. 3 Either

Group N：紅色T恤—紅色的T恤他后邊—他的后邊

Group O：訂立合同—訂立的合同? 學習計劃—學習的計劃

According to the lexical semantic category and A-B semantic cognitive processing type, the subjective semantics can be divided into two categories, one is the meanings remain almost the same whether it is with a usage of a De. Their minor difference lies in, with the addition of a De, speakers’ emphasis of A (Cui Xiliang 1992: 181),Group N belongs to the first category. The word 的 in group has a communication effect of raising attention, the former 的 emphasizes 紅色not other colors ,and the latter 的 emphasizes他not someone else. They both have the connotations of comparisons.

And the other scenario is whether there a De or without could substantially change their meanings. Group O falls into the second category.The instances of訂立合同,which represents a verb-object relationship, the verb (訂立)exerts influence on the noun object (合同)and the exertion process is simultaneously perceived by the cognition and sight and they cannot be detached from each other in time. With a De in between, A-B indicates that the time of words does not overlap with the time of the action, they are two separate time periods and have a chronological order.

However, human’s verbal ability is part of cognitive skills. The cognition of the distance between time or space hinges largely on individuals’ subjective points of view instead of the objective reality.Whether there would be a De or without one is a result of individuals’ subjective choice, leading to two scenarios, namely with or without a De, which proves a challenge for new Chinese learners.

Part 4 Conclusion

After analysis on the cognitive principles of the usage of De, three points should be made clear to Chinese learners:

Firstly, a De is needed when a speaker’s meanings or connotations of A-B are detachable from the meanings or connotations of A and B expressed separately, and otherwise, without a De. It has nothing to do with the number of syllables whatsoever.

Secondly, the attributive with a De is put before the attributive without a De, and the two attributive words are jointly used to modify or restrict the head B.

Thirdly, when A-B shows an un-detachable relationship and after an addition of a De, “A的B” stresses A and has connotations of exclusive comparisons.

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