Climate Governance and Sustainable Development

Zhang Haibin

Climate change is one of the most severe challenges faced by all countries in the world today. The international community is following closely the development of global climate governance. It is generally believed that the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in 1972 marked the beginning of global environment governance， and that the initiation of global climate negotiations under the framework of the UN was the start of global climate governance. In the past three decades， global climate governance had continued to evolve and develop and has made many positive progresses. Seen as a mirror of global governance， global climate governance has become an important item high on the agenda of human development and a key area for international cooperation. To make new headway in global climate governance， it is crucial to improve the global climate governance system and remain committed to multi-layer cooperation under multilateral framework.

HISTORY AND FEATURES OF GLOBAL CLIMATE GOVERNANCE

On December 21， 1990， resolution 45/212 Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind was adopted by the UN General Assembly during its 45th session. It was decided that an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee （INC） should be established for setting up an effective framework convention on climate change. This marked the beginning of global climate negotiations and governance. In May 1992， the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change （UNFCCC） was adopted by the INC after five rounds of negotiations which started in February 1991. The UNFCCC was opened for signature in June 1992 at the UN Conference on Environment and Development and entered into forth in March 1994.

The UNFCCC laid a solid foundation for international cooperation on coping with climate change. It underpinned and marked the beginning of the era for global climate governance. The Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015， which were reached under the framework of the UNFCCC， are considered two landmark accomplishments in global climate governance. Taking a look at the history of global climate governance， we can see the progresses made and some key features.

First， the objectives of global climate governance have become clearer. With more measures taken to cope with climate change， the international community has set clearer climate objectives. As is stated in Article 2 of the UNFCCC， the ultimate climate objective is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Article 2 in the Paris Agreement specifies that global climate actions should be strengthened by holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2℃ above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5℃ above pre-industrial levels， recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change. The objectives in the Paris Agreement are quantitative and stated more specifically， as they are developed on the basis of the overall objective in the UNFCCC.

Second， the principles of global climate governance have undergone constant changes and adjustments. The UNFCCC set as the basic principles of global climate cooperation the precautionary principle， the principle of fairness， common but differentiated responsibility， and respective capabilities. Later in the Paris Agreement， the common but differentiated responsibility principle was complemented with the new statement of “in the light of different national circumstances”， which was conducive to more efficient cooperation on a broader scale. Another trend worth noticing was that the principle of sustainable development has been reinforced in the process of global climate governance.

Third， the means to emission reduction has witnessed major shifts. The Kyoto Protocol which came into effect in 2005 mainly took a top-down approach in assigning emission reduction targets. As the situation evolved， however， the role and influence of different countries in global climate governance changed significantly and it became much more difficult to reach compromises among interests of all sides. The top-down model thus became obsolete. When the countries reached the Paris Agreement in 2015， they mainly adopted a bottom-up approach of nationally determined contributions.

Fourth， a multi-layer， multi-dimensional global climate governance system with strong resilience has been gradually formed over the years. Since the initiation of the UN climate negotiations， the fundamental structure of global climate governance has constantly evolved and has now become a multi-layer， multi-dimensional governance system with state-level， sub-state-level， and non-state players， and with the UNFCCC， the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement at the center. The current system has shown great resilience， as it has withstood the impact of major crises such as the 2008 Financial Crisis， the withdrawal of the U.S. Trump administration in 2017， and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Fifth， science and policy-making have become more closely-knit. Science and technology play a crucial role in global climate governance. All six IPCC climate change assessment reports have had an important influence on the process of global climate negotiations， which then in turn charted the course for the scientific assessment of climate change. It is worth mentioning that the development of green low-carbon technology led to a dramatic decrease in emission reduction costs， which promoted the process of global climate negotiations. The results of the negotiations in turn promoted the innovation and development of green low-carbon technology.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN GLOBAL CLIMATE GOVERNANCE

The world today is faced with changes unseen in a century， with intertwining traditional and non-traditional security threats and growing uncertainties and instability in international relations. In this context， global climate governance also finds itself in a complex situation， with both challenges and opportunities. Challenges are mainly found in the following aspects.

First， ever growing climate risks are threatening human existence. According to a report by the International Energy Agency in 2022， global carbon dioxide emissions rose by 6% in 2021 to 36.3 billion tons， a record high. The Sixth Assessment Report by IPCC clearly states that surface temperature of the earth is already 1.1℃ above pre-industrial levels. Escalated climate change has affected every part of the world and we might be facing a disastrous climate crisis.

Second， international climate negotiations are becoming more complicated. The global climate governance system still needs improvement， as it is not fair enough and lacks binding force. As the interests of different countries become more divergent， international climate negotiations are also more complicated. What used to be a relatively simple layout of two camps， developed and developing countries， has now taken on a much more complex form. Camps are divided between the global North and South， and negotiation blocs are formed according to different interests. Meanwhile， in implementing the principle of common but differentiated responsibility， which should feature fairness the most， developed countries have failed to fulfill the pledge they made to developing countries regarding funding and technology transfer. As a result， many developing countries lack capacity in terms of both emission reduction and climate adaptation.

Third， with traditional and non-traditional security threats reinforcing each other， the process of global climate governance has been delayed. The on-going COVID-19 pandemic has not only caused a major hit in the world economy， but also eroded the economic foundation of global climate governance. The continued escalation of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine since February 2022 has had a huge impact on international relations and might lead to another round of global food， energy and economic crisis， which will have a negative effect on global climate governance. From a short-term perspective， the conflict has resulted in reduced global attention on climate change， exacerbated the trust deficit of major countries， and reduced the resources invested in climate actions. In the medium and long term， the rise of protectionism， unilateralism and cold-war mentality may cripple joint climate efforts of the international community.

On the other hand， we must recognize that despite severe challenges in some respects， global climate governance has also witnessed positive factors and important opportunities， particularly in the following areas.

First， the goal of carbon neutrality has led to a new round of low-carbon development in the world. Over 130 countries and regions including China， the U.S. and Europe have declared their long-term carbon reduction goals to reach carbon neutrality， showing that green development has become a global trend.

Second， global competition in green technology and industries is conducive to the development of global climate governance. In order to achieve carbon neutrality， China， the U.S. and Europe have approached the goal from a strategic perspective and taken climate change as an important issue of international affairs and national security. To some extent， this could encourage communication and exchanges between the global North and South as well as South-South cooperation in the area of global climate governance.

Third， addressing climate change is where the interests of all countries converge and where cooperation can be kicked off. In addition， it is also an important area of cooperation among major countries. Due to deficit in governance， trust， peace and development， it is hard for the international community to reach global consensus on cooperation in many areas. As climate change is a severe， systemic， long-term global issue， however， all countries in the world attach great importance to coping with climate change. Climate actions reflect the common interest of all countries and has become an important area of international cooperation.

A MULTI-PRONGED APPROACH

The world is at a historical crossroads in addressing climate change. The choice it makes now will have an impact on the future of the human race. The international community should take a targeted approach， enhance cooperation， and join hands in promoting global climate governance.

First， we should firmly safeguard multilateralism and stand opposed to unilateralism. In global climate governance， upholding true multilateralism means to bear in mind the greater good， taking into consideration not only national but also global interest and abandoning the selfish and narrow-minded view of the supremacy of national interest. It calls on all countries to take concrete actions to fully implement the commitments they made in the Paris Agreement. It entails that global climate negotiations should be open and transparent， with the interest of all parties concerned fully considered. It calls for mutual respect and goes in contrast with fake multilateralism in the forms of exclusive blocs and making climate change an issue of ideology. It also rejects unilateral policies such as carbon border adjustments.

Second， we should strive for the reform and improvement of the global climate governance system. In this regard， we must clearly set the target and objectives of the reform as building a global climate governance system featuring fairness， justice and win-win cooperation. We must remain committed to the centrality of the UN and encourage other international organizations and stakeholders to play a complementary and supporting role. We must adhere to the principle of common but differentiated responsibility. Developed countries should respect the right to development of developing countries， take a lead in emission reduction actions， and reach carbon neutrality ahead of schedule. They should also deliver on their pledge of providing an annual 100 billion U.S. dollars in funding to developing countries by 2022， so as to enhance mutual trust between the global North and South.

Third， we should see to it that major countries play a leading role in promoting global climate governance. Major countries should prove themselves worthy of their names by taking concrete actions rather than talking about empty slogans and goals. China has set a good example in this regard. Since China announced the vision of carbon peak and carbon neutrality， it has been steadily promoting to implement the commitments in a scientific and orderly manner. It has set up a leading group， formulated a “1+N” policy framework for carbon peak and carbon neutrality， and officially rolled out the implementation plans for some key sectors and industries. In China， the carbon market witnesses orderly operation and the green transition of energy continues to see new progress. China ranks first in the world in terms of total installed capacity of hydro， wind， solar and biomass power.

Fourth， we should bring into full play the influence of sub-state and non-state actors to make more innovative creations in green technology. The importance of sub-state and non-state actors including cities， NGOs and enterprises is becoming more prominent in such areas as public awareness cultivation， information and data collection， policy supervision， project implementation， technology innovation and global network building. The international community should create suitable conditions for these actors to play their role. Moreover， there is an urgent need for promoting scientific innovation， especially breakthroughs in green technology to cope with climate change.

To conclude， China is a participant， contributor and leader of international climate cooperation and global ecological civilization building. As global climate governance faces severe challenges， China remains committed to building a community of share future for all and played its due role as a major country. China spares no effort in consolidating consensus and strengthening communication and coordination in international climate negotiations， and has promoted all countries to accelerate the implementation of global climate agreements such as the Paris Agreement. It has contributed Chinas wisdom， proposal and strength to constructing a global climate governance system of a fair and win-win nature and to the sustained development of the world.

Zhang Haibin is Professor and Associate Dean of the School of International Relations， Peking University; Member of Climate Change and Low Carbon Development Committee， Chinese Meteorological Society