從學生例文看語篇分析方法的運用

摘 要： 本文通過對兩篇學生作文的語篇分析與評價，說明了語篇意識的培養和語篇分析手段的運用在學生英語寫作中的重要性。

關鍵詞： 學生例文 語篇分析方法 運用

一、引言

語篇作為一門學科是20世紀50年代以后才發展起來的。“它是指一系列連續的話段或句子構成的語言整體”。［１］語篇可長可短，可簡可繁，既可以采取口頭形式又可以采取書面形式。語篇中的句子是通過一定的連接紐帶并按照一定思維模式結合起來的。它無論以何種方式出現，都必須合乎語法，并且語意連貫。因此，語篇應具有一個邏輯結構，句子之間有一定的邏輯聯系，符合語用和認知原則，并且可以達到一定的交際目的。而語篇分析則通常指的是對比句子更大的語言單位，如句群、段落等語言單位所作的語言分析，目的在于解釋人們如何構造和理解各種連貫的語篇（text）。在過去的半個多世紀里誕生了許多用于語篇分析的理論方法。筆者由于篇幅有限，主要針對目前學生寫作過程中出現的一些問題，從語篇銜接性、連貫性及語篇結構三個方面，對兩篇學生作文進行語篇分析、評價，希望可以使學生在以后的英語寫作中重視語篇知識的運用，提高寫作水平。

二、銜接、連貫和語篇結構理論簡介

（一）銜接

銜接是語篇特征的一個重要內容，體現在語篇的表層結構上，就是語篇的有形網絡，它和語篇一樣，是一個語義概念，指的是語篇中語言成分之間的語義聯系，或者說是語篇中一個成分與另一個可以與之相互解釋的成分之間的關系。當語篇中一個成分的含義依賴于另一個成分的解釋時，便產生銜接關系。［２］

Hallid把銜接分為語法銜接（grammatical cohesion）和詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion）兩種。語法銜接有四種：照應、省略、替代和連接。詞匯銜接也有四種：重復、同義/反義、上下義/局部-整體關系和搭配。一段話語要成為語篇，必須依靠種種銜接手段實現。

（二）連貫

連貫指的是語篇中語義的關聯，它存在于語篇的深層結構中，通過邏輯推理來達到語義連接，是語篇的無形網絡。作為無形網絡的連貫應該是命題意義之間的邏輯性。銜接是連貫的輔助條件，而不是充分必要條件，也就是說，語篇的連貫不一定依賴銜接，而更主要取決于“符合語義、語用和認知原則”。［2］張德祿在《論語篇連貫》（2000）中指出連貫是語篇的銜接機智和情景相互作用產生的總體效應。并總結出語篇連貫概念的四個基本特點：分級性、連貫性、整體性和功能性。分級性就是對語篇是否連貫從程度上進行區分。其標準是語篇是否在情景語境中行使恰當的功能。只要恰當地完成交際任務，就可以說在很大程度上是連貫的。連貫性是語篇連貫的基本條件。語篇中句子之間、段落之間要以某種語義關系聯系起來，這樣才構成語篇。整體性就是語篇銜接要達到的主要目標。語篇中具體成分之間的銜接要使某個部分形成一個整體，而各部分之間的銜接則要使整個語篇形成一個整體。功能性從兩方面來說明：“從情景語境的角度，它是適合當時的交際需要，與情景語境融為一體的，完成了語篇與語境的銜接作用，是連貫的。從語類的角度講，它符合所屬語類結構潛勢的要求，所以是連貫的。”可見，一個連貫的語篇所表達的是整體意義，語篇必須具有銜接成分，句子之間在概念上必須聯系，在排列上應符合邏輯，語篇的各個部分在整個語篇中起作用，從而形成一個語義整體。

（三）語篇結構

語篇的體裁不同，語篇的表現形式也不同。在不同的體裁中，語篇中句子之間的銜接與連貫有別。語篇的結構雖然多種多樣，但應是有條理、上下連貫、前后一致的有機的語言整體。英語的語篇主要有記敘文（Narration）、描寫文（Description）、說明文（Exposition）和議論文（Argumentation）。在一般情況下，英語的語篇都有開頭、中間、結尾等部分。不同體裁的語篇由不同的結構形式表示開頭、中間、結尾。如記敘文的開頭部分往往對時間、地點、人物等方面作出交代，中間部分主要是描述事件的發展，結尾是描寫人物和事態的結局或給人的啟示；描寫文則首先通過對某個人物外貌進行描寫，或對某個事物的基本印象或感受敘說，接著就其獨特的性格特點或品質加以描寫，最后總結描述；說明文則或先下定義后解釋、舉例說明，或先舉例，后下定義說明某個現象或事物的概念、性質、功能、形狀、構造等；議論文的開頭往往直接指出問題，說明該文章要議論什么問題，中間部分通過講道理、擺事實等手段對開頭所提問題加以分析，對論點加以論證，結尾部分則提出解決問題的辦法或得出一個結論。筆者主要針對兩篇學生議論文進行分析。

三、學生作文的分析評價

筆者從文秋芳教授的語料庫中隨機選取了兩篇同一論題的學生作文，如下：

1.Education as a Lifelong Process

Different people have different understandings toward education.Some people think that education means simply going to the universities or colleges；some people think that education is only a means to get good jobs.As for me，I think education is a lifelong process.

First，according to my understanding，education is a process of learning knowledges.For the world is so complicated，the human beings are so ignorant to it，we have so much to learn that even a whole life time is not enough.Just as the saying goes，“the life is limited，the knowledge is not!” Therefore，the view that education only means going to the universities seems ridiculous.We all started our education as early as our childhood，and we will absolutely continue our education on and on after the graduation，just as our teachers who are furthering their studies do；as our parents who are studying to improve their working ability do；just as our grandparents who are reading newspapers do.In a word，there are so much knowledge to learn that it make education a lifelong process.

Second，education is also a process of enhancing our own qualities.I believe that all of us are trying to improve our qualities through education.We want more than just a good job，we want more than that: we want to be knowledgably，we want to be capable of understanding and managing things，we want to have refined taste!——education is the key way to fulfill our wishes.And because our desire to be better qualified never stops，the need for education never stops.Therefore，education has become a lifelong process.

In conclusion，as there are so many things to learn and people’s desire to get better qualified is so consistent that I believe that education is a lifelong process.

2.Education as a lifelong process

Education is one of the most important events in one’s life.Instead of only going to school to learn from teachers and books，education means much more.Education should be a lifelong process that can take place at any time anywhere.

Many people view education as going to schools and universities to study knowledge.Therefore，for most people，education starts from going to primary school at a certain age and ends at most at the age of 30.That’s not the reality.In most cases，people are learning new things by education everyday.Before going to school for study，children learn many things from their parents by various means like asking simple questions.Parents also deliberately teach children some basic knowledge，which the experts call the “ pre-school education”.So，children have already received much education when they start schooling.

Education，as a common thing，is taking place all the time at all places.

Schools，teachers，books are not necessarily indispensable in education.People can receive information and learn things by diverse means.For example，bringing students outside the classroom to appreciate the beauty of the nature is a kind of spiritual education.Education still exists absolutely after graduation from the universities.One can be educated by reading，watching TV and films，tasting，smelling and so on.Everyone is being educated everywhere at any time，while they are also educating others with their knowledge and experiences.Education exists everywhere.

I don’t agree with the point that education is only for realistic benefits，like finding a good job and well-paid job.Education is beneficial to people in many aspects，not only for material profit.Education can help people much spiritually.People can enjoy life more and always keep a good attitude if they have received good education.Education is spiritually beneficial and important in one’s whole life.This is another reason why education is a lifelong process.

Human life needs education.Education is beneficial to us in many aspects.Education is a lifelong process.

（一）語篇銜接手段分析

在對以上兩篇文章的分析中，需要引起我們注意的是兩篇文章的作者均缺乏運用銜接手段的意識。共同特點是：兩篇文章中某些詞匯的重復率過多，例如：education一詞，在第一篇文章中出現十五次，在第二篇文章中出現二十一次。除此之外在第一篇文章中的斜體字部分均有重復之嫌。也出現了很多不恰當的表達方式，如：“continue our education on and on；In conclusion，as there are so many things to learn and people’s desire to get better qualified is so consistent that I believe that education is a lifelong process.”等。在語法銜接方面也沒有注意省略和替代方法的運用。相比而言，第二篇文章盡管也有一些詞匯重復過多，但詞匯量較之第一篇文章更豐富，也比較注意替代和省略手段的運用。但也出現了一些連接方面的問題，如：“Education should be a lifelong process that can take place at any time anywhere.”在anywhere之前應添加連詞and。再如：“Many people view education as going to schools and universities to study knowledge.Therefore，for most people，education starts from going to primary school at a certain age and ends at most at the age of 30.”上文指many people而下文就出現most people，這里似乎無法構成因果關系。

（二）語篇連貫性分析

語篇的連貫意味著段落中的所有需要表達的思想能夠流暢地從一個語句流向另一個語句，并使讀者很易于理解文章所想表達的觀點。在大學英語四六級考試的寫作評分中對連貫性作出了專門要求（見下表）：

從上表可以看出來連貫性水平越高分數越高，可見連貫在寫作中所占有的重要地位。從總體來看，兩篇文章在連貫性的處理上做得還是比較理想的。讓我們來分析一下兩篇文章概要：

1.（1）Education is a lifelong process

（2）Reasons for the idea

①Education is a process of learning knowledge.

②Education is also a process of enhancing our own qualities.

（3）Conclusion

2.（1）Education is a lifelong process

（2）Reasons for the idea

①Children have already received much education when they start schooling.

②Education exists everywhere

A.In schools，teachers，books

B.Learning things by diverse means

a.Appreciating the beauty of the nature is a kind of spiritual education.

b.Being educated by reading，watching TV and films，tasting，smelling and so on.

③Education is beneficial to people in many aspects，not only for material profit.

（3）Conclusion

從上面的兩篇文章的概要，我們可以看出第一篇文章層次較分明，局部與整體關系密切。通過對①、②兩點的分析論證了教育是終生過程的原因，從而得出結論。第二篇文章則通過對a、b的分析提出B，再通過對A、B的分析得出②，從①、②論證了（2），進而得出結論。盡管在層次結構上，在局部到整體的規劃上，第二篇文章也比較連貫，但在連貫性處理方法上似乎還可以更進一步。如在分析“Education exists everywhere”這一主題時可以從四個方面進行：school education （including teachers，books and school environments）；education got from nature；education got from society and education got from entertainment。在對③Education is beneficial to people in many aspects的分析中也可以從兩方面著手：being beneficial to people’s material profit；being beneficial to people’s spirit。

（三）語篇結構分析

從兩篇文章的語篇結構來看，兩篇文章均符合議論文的篇章結構要求，遵循“提出問題—分析問題—得出結論”的基本結構要求。第一篇文章結構使用了我們最為熟悉，大學四、六級考生最常使用的一種謀篇方法，即在分析論點時使用first，second，in conclusion等詞匯，使得文章條理性非常清晰，但同時也正是由于這種模式的反復使用，降低文章在結構上的新鮮感，是一種具有保險性但缺乏創新性的語篇構造。第二篇文章在語篇結構上則感覺較新穎：在提出論點之后，依靠每段主題意義的內在聯系，完成謀篇布局。如：其論點為終生教育，第二段提出人們除了受到學校教育之外，其實從一出生便開始受教育；第三段指出人們受教育的多種方式；同時在第四段中通過批判部分人對待教育的錯誤觀點再次提出終身教育的重要性；最后點題結束。這種層層深入、以段落主題思想為連接手段的謀篇很顯然在結構上要優于第一篇文章。

四、結語

通過以上分析，我們可以得出結論，從總體而言，第二篇文章略好于第一篇，原因在于第二篇文章的習作者的語篇意識較強，表現手法也較豐富。由此可見，語篇意識與寫作水平有著直接的關系。寫作是學生吸收語言知識的基礎上，分析、重組和再創造的過程，是學生綜合語言技能的體現形式。學生要想使英語行文地道，只注意加強語言基本功的訓練是不夠的，還要主動加強語篇意識的培養及語篇分析的運用。

參考文獻：

［１］黃國文.語篇分析概要.湖南教育出版社，1988.

［２］胡壯麟，朱永生.系統功能語言學概論.2006.