魏熙胤 臧鳳琳 孫保存
·國家基金研究進展綜述·
TFPI-2對惡性腫瘤細胞增殖凋亡 侵襲轉移調控作用的研究進展*
魏熙胤①臧鳳琳②孫保存②
組織因子途徑抑制物-2(tissue factor pathway inhibitor-2,TFPI-2)是具有庫尼(Kunitz)結構域的絲氨酸蛋白酶抑制劑。新近發現,TFPI-2在惡性腫瘤中表達降低,并與腫瘤轉移、侵襲等惡性生物學行為密切相關。該分子表達的分子調控機制包括啟動子CpG島超甲基化、ERK1/2信號途徑、JNK信號途徑等。TFPI-2的主要功能體現在維持腫瘤微環境的穩定性,抑制腫瘤細胞的生長、侵襲和轉移。目前認為,TFPI-2在調節細胞增殖、凋亡以及血管生成擬態方面也發揮重要作用。本文就TFPI-2在腫瘤中的表達及調控機制、細胞凋亡、血管生成中作用進行綜述,為其在腫瘤的預防、診斷及基因治療中開展深入研究提供理論基礎。
TFPI-2 惡性腫瘤 凋亡 轉移 血管生成
組織因子途徑抑制物(tissue factor pathway inhibitor,TFPI)是機體生理性抗凝劑,它通過抑制組織活性因子Ⅶ、X的活化調控外源性凝血的起始階段。TFPI蛋白分為TFPI-1、TFPI-2兩種亞型,其中TFPI-2又稱胎盤蛋白-5,是一種含有Kunitz型結構域的、基質相關絲氨酸蛋白酶抑制物。近年來發現,TFPI-2能夠強烈抑制纖維蛋白溶解酶、胰蛋白酶、血漿激肽釋放酶、基質金屬蛋白酶(matrix metallopro-teinases,MMPs)等多種細胞外蛋白酶的活性,在血管新生、動脈粥樣硬化、腫瘤發生及轉移等多種病理生理過程中發揮重要作用。本文就TFPI-2在惡性腫瘤中的表達及調控、TFPI-2對增殖凋亡的調節以及對腫瘤侵襲轉移的作用機制分述如下。
由腫瘤細胞分泌的多種蛋白酶參與降解細胞外基質(extracellular matrix,ECM)和基底膜是腫瘤發生浸潤轉移的重要步驟。近年來研究發現,TFPI-2在神經膠質瘤、肝癌、胰腺癌等多種腫瘤中表達降低或缺失,并能夠抑制腫瘤侵襲和轉移[1-3]。但TFPI-2在腫瘤中的表達并不一致,如TFPI-2在乳腺癌和結腸癌組織中的表達水平相對較高,故需要更多的后續實驗加以深入研究[4]。
TFPI-2在大多數腫瘤中表達降低,如:在體外培養的9株高級別膠質瘤細胞系中,有5株存在TFPI-2表達缺失;經腺病毒介導敲除TFPI-2基因后,曾表達TFPI-2的膠質瘤細胞出現明顯的增殖、侵襲和轉移的惡性生物學行為,且出現MMP-1和MMP-2蛋白表達下降[1]。此外,TFPI-2在高、中分化胃癌組中的表達水平高于低分化組,并隨腫瘤TNM分期的進展而降低,具有遠處轉移的患者TFPI-2的表達低于無遠處轉移者,TFPI-2高表達組患者預后比中、低表達組好[5]。隨著鼻黏膜從正常到良性外翻性乳頭狀瘤再到惡性鱗狀細胞癌的進展,TFPI-2表達量逐漸減少,且TFPI-2表達與微血管密度呈負相關[6]。Tang等[3]也發現,TFPI-2能夠抑制體外培養的胰腺癌細胞系和荷瘤小鼠體內腫瘤的侵襲和轉移,也是胰腺癌患者獨立的預后危險因素。上述研究均表明,TFPI-2是具有抑制腫瘤浸潤、轉移功能的抑癌基因,在惡性腫瘤中表達降低或缺失。
但Sierko等[4]在結腸癌和乳腺癌中卻觀察到不一致的結果:約70%(45/66)的結腸癌和全部乳腺癌(21例)中均存在TFPI-2蛋白和mRNA的高表達,且TFPI-2在具有淋巴結轉移的乳腺癌患者中含量更高。造成這種不一致現象的原因可能包括:免疫組織化學技術選用的抗體不同、抗原修復方法不同以及樣本量大小不同等。此外,Kempaiah等[7]的研究結果似乎提供了更為合理的解釋:mRNA水平的異常剪接形成僅含有外顯子2和5,并缺少5'和3'非翻譯區的異常TFPI-2轉錄本,該異常cDNA全長約289 bp,遠低于正常的TFPI-2分子(662 bp),因此在肝細胞癌、膀胱癌、胰腺癌、結腸癌和纖維母細胞瘤等腫瘤中檢測到高表達的TFPI-2 mRNA很可能是上述異常轉錄本。TFPI-2蛋白表達的差異目前尚無明確的實驗結果,尚需要更多深入的研究進一步加以分析和評價。
TFPI-2基因定位于7q22區域,全長約7 kb,5'非編碼區含有多個調控基因表達的順式作用元件,在轉錄起始位點上游-284、-179和-126處分別有3個特異性β1糖蛋白結合位點,這些結構在TFPI-2轉錄、翻譯過程中起到重要作用[8]。文獻報道,腫瘤組織中TFPI-2基因沉默的主要原因之一是由于啟動子CpG島的超甲基化。在非小細胞肺癌中發現,大約30%的病例存在TFPI-2啟動子甲基化,且TFPI-2降表達和甲基化更多出現在Ⅲ、Ⅳ期及發生淋巴結轉移的患者[9]。在對彌漫大B淋巴瘤的研究中也觀察到,實驗組中77%出現TFPI-2啟動子甲基化,顯著高于對照組,且23個啟動子位點中有19個出現異常甲基化[10]。此外,在小鼠胚胎干細胞內,逆轉錄轉座子LINE-1的異常活化抑制組蛋白修飾,并引發TFPI-2無意義轉錄,同樣造成腫瘤細胞內的TFPI-2基因沉默[11]。
另有研究報道,血管內皮細胞生長因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)、MAPK激酶(mitogen activated protein kinase kinase,MKK)、腫瘤壞死因子α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)等多種因子均參與了TFPI-2表達的調節[12]。在血管內皮細胞中VEGF誘導高表達TFPI-2,并具有時間和劑量依賴性,TFPI-2反過來又阻斷VEGF誘導的細胞外信號調節蛋白激酶1/2(extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/ 2,ERK1/2)活化,提示VEGF與TFPI-2之間可能存在負反饋的調節機制[7]。MKK-7能夠激活C-Jun氨基端激酶(C-Jun N-terminal kinase,JNK)并抑制細胞生長,在TFPI-2啟動子區域含有核因子活化蛋白(activator protein-1,AP-1)結合位點,該位點恰好是JNK的下游作用底物,提示AP-I依賴性TFPI-2表達上調與MKK7/JNK途徑密切相關[13]。
既往研究認為TFPI-2的主要生物學功能是抑制包括MMPs在內的多種蛋白酶活性,阻斷ECM重塑,抑制腫瘤細胞的侵襲和轉移。近年來研究發現,TFPI-2還具有抑制細胞增殖、誘導細胞凋亡等作用,同樣影響著腫瘤的發生發展。在對新生兒主動脈平滑肌細胞的研究中,發現重組的TFPI憑借蛋白的C末端結構域抑制細胞生長[14]。在血管內皮細胞中,TFPI-2能夠通過絲/蘇氨酸蛋白激酶(Akt)和ERK1/2阻斷VEGF誘導的細胞增生,但僅含第一個Kunitz型結構域的重組蛋白不具備此功能[12]。經TFPI-2處理視網膜色素上皮細胞后,與細胞增殖相關的Ras/Raf/ MAPK信號通路、轉錄因子E2F3以及“分子警察”p53均發生相應的改變以阻斷細胞進入分裂周期[15]。在對胰腺癌的研究中,也觀察到外源性導入TFPI-2基因后,細胞增殖能力明顯下降[3]。在非小細胞肺癌中,隨著去甲基化試劑(5-Aza-CdR)濃度的逐漸升高,TFPI-2 mRNA和蛋白表達逐漸升高,而且細胞出現了明顯的G0/G1期阻滯[16]。
TFPI-2對細胞增殖的阻滯往往伴隨著對凋亡誘導敏感性的增強。經腺病毒轉染膠質瘤細胞高表達TFPI-2后,發現細胞內凋亡級聯蛋白caspase-9和caspase-3活性增強,提示TFPI-2可能通過內、外源性途徑誘導腫瘤細胞凋亡[17]。在纖維肉瘤細胞中,全長TFPI-2蛋白、R24K/KD1突變體和R24Q/KD1突變體均可誘導細胞凋亡,三者對凋亡的誘導率分別為39%、69%和18%[18]。TFPI-2對凋亡的促進作用通過多種機制實現,主要包括:過表達的TFPI-2集中分布于胞膜附近并上調TNF-R、Fas受體的表達,促進caspase-3、caspase-9相互作用及酶切水解,增加線粒體膜通透性,釋放細胞色素C,活化核纖層蛋白A(Lamin A)、聚腺苷二磷酸-核糖聚合酶(poly-ADP-ribose polymerase,PARP)等執行分子,從而在凋亡啟動、傳遞和執行階段均起到了促進作用[19-20];TFPI-2抑制ECM中的纖溶酶及MMP-3、MMP-7活性,保護FasL配體細胞外結構域的完整性,并與VEGF相互協同,激活促凋亡蛋白Bax表達,抑制抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2、XIAP(X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein)活性,導致細胞凋亡增加[12,21]。
作為廣譜蛋白酶抑制物,TFPI-2能夠抑制大多數含有絲氨酸位點的蛋白酶,從而參與ECM的重塑,在血管生成及腫瘤細胞侵襲轉移等一系列生理、病理過程中扮演重要角色。在膠質瘤、纖維肉瘤、惡性腦膜瘤中,發現TFPI-2通過抑制新生血管的形成來降低其對周圍組織的侵襲及遠處轉移能力。體外將轉染重組rAAV-TFPI-2的膠質瘤SNB19細胞與毛細血管內皮細胞HMEC共培養,微血管定量分析發現rAAV-TFPI-2對毛細血管網狀結構形成的抑制率可達85%;進一步裸鼠體內實驗證實,rAAV-TFPI-2在已形成的血管床上可100%抑制新生毛細血管的形成[22]。
TFPI-2抑制腫瘤血管生成的主要機制包括:1)拮抗組織因子(tissue factor,TF)誘導血管生成。腫瘤細胞及血管內皮細胞高表達TF,并通過蛋白酶激活的受體-2(protease activated receptor 2,PAR-2)信號通路促進血管生成。當TFPI-2表達水平升高時,TF受到拮抗,PAR-2信號轉導被阻滯[23];2)在較高濃度(約20 nM)下,抑制內皮細胞的遷移和管道形成[24];3)利用氨基末端自由氨基上的Zn活化位點,通過多價螯和作用與MMPs結合并抑制其與ECM的結合,降低對ECM的破壞作用[25]。
此外,TFPI-2對腫瘤血管生成擬態(vasculogenic mimicry,VM)也具有重要的調節作用。VM是指腫瘤細胞通過自身變形模仿血管壁結構,形成的能夠輸送血液的管腔。目前已證實在乳腺癌、胃癌、腎透明細胞癌、肝癌、腺泡橫紋肌肉瘤等多種惡性腫瘤中存在,且具有VM結構的腫瘤血管轉移早、復發率高、臨床預后差[26]。在對惡性黑色素瘤的研究中,Ruf等[27]通過基因芯片發現腫瘤細胞能夠形成血管樣結構并高表達包括TFPI-2在內的血管內皮細胞相關基因,TFPI-2與三維培養基質相互作用可以誘導低度惡性黑色素瘤形成VM[27]。本課題組在前期工作中也觀察到:在中、高分化胃癌中,TFPI-2通過負性調節內皮依賴性血管抑制腫瘤的浸潤和轉移;在低分化胃癌中,TFPI-2通過細胞外基質重塑促進VM的形成,有利于腫瘤的轉移,提示TFPI-2在胃癌血管生成模式中很可能發揮著雙向調控作用,對深入研究TFPI-2在腫瘤中的作用具有重要提示意義[5]。
TFPI-2通過誘導腫瘤細胞凋亡、抑制腫瘤新生血管形成、調節血管生成擬態等參與腫瘤發生發展、浸潤轉移的諸多環節,成為腫瘤診斷和治療研究中的熱點。在腫瘤治療、腫瘤臨床診斷、促進傷口愈合和動脈粥樣硬化治療等領域,以TFPI-2為靶向分子的研究正在進行。相信隨著對TFPI-2信號調控機制和功能研究的日漸深入,TFPI-2在腫瘤的預防、診斷及基因治療中將會產生更好的效果。
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(2014-08-07收稿)
(2014-10-14修回)
(本文編輯:鄭莉)
Research progress on effects of TFPI-2 on proliferation,apoptosis,and metastasis of malignant tumors cells
Xiyin WEI,Fenglin ZANG,Baocun SUN
Baocun SUN;E-mail:baocunsun@126.com
Section of Public Laboratory and Department of Pathology,Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital,National Clinical Research Center of Cancer,Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy,Tianjin 300060,China.
This study was supported by grants from the Outstanding Young Scientist Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.81001020)and the Tianjin Municipal Bureau of Public Health Science Foundation(No.2010KZ70).
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor-2(TFPI-2),a member of the Kunitz-type family,is a broad-spectrum serine proteinase inhibitor.The expression of TFPI-2 is inversely related to increasing degree of malignancy,suggesting a role of TFPI-2 in the maintenance of tumor stability and inhibition of the growth of neoplasma.Aberrant methylation of TFPI-2 promoter cytosine-phosphorothioate-guanine(CpG)islands has been widely documented to be responsible for diminished expression of TFPI-2 mRNA and protein during cancer progression.TFPI-2 expression is significantly up-regulated by the ERK1/2 and JNK signaling pathways and modestly increased by VEGF,TNF-alpha,and fibroblast growth factor in time-and dose-dependent manners.TFPI-2 can maintain the stability of the tumor environment and inhibit invasiveness and growth of neoplasms.TFPI-2 has also been shown to regulate proliferation,apoptosis,and vasculogenic mimicry of tumor cells,which may contribute significantly to tumor growth inhibition.Restoration of TFPI-2 expression in tumor tissue inhibits tumor growth and metastasis,which creates a novel possibility of cancer patient treatment.This review focuses on the expression and the molecular regulation mechanisms of TFPI-2 in malignant tumors that control the functions of TFPI-2 in proliferation,apoptosis,and angiogenesis.Insight into these processes will improve our understanding of TFPI-2 and provide new approaches for rational treatment strategies.
TFPI-2,malignant tumor,apoptosis,metastasis,angiogenesis

10.3969/j.issn.1000-8179.20141336
①天津醫科大學腫瘤醫院腫瘤研究所公共實驗室,國家腫瘤臨床醫學研究中心,天津市腫瘤防治重點實驗室(天津市300060);②病理科
*本文課題受國家自然科學基金青年科學基金項目(編號81001020)和天津市衛生局科技基金項目(編號2010KZ70)資助
孫保存 baocunsun@126.com
魏熙胤 專業方向為流式細胞術應用。
E-mail:weixiyin@126.com