二語教師話語中的修補啟動

二語教師話語中的修補啟動

姚劍鵬

(寧波工程學院,寧波,315211)

摘要:修補啟動是啟動者運用言語和非言語手段對監控到的言語錯誤向交際對方發出修補信號的行為。它在會話自我修補過程中起著關鍵的作用。本文以我國二語課堂師生互動環境為背景,針對課堂話語中教師對學習者的自我修補啟動行為,分啟動者、啟動位和啟動技巧等方面進行梳理,并結合課堂語料,討論教師修補啟動的特征及其作用。

關鍵詞:會話自我修補,修補啟動,修補啟動者,修補啟動位,修補啟動技巧

[中圖分類號]H08

doi[編碼] 10.3969/j.issn.1674-8921.2015.09.013

作者簡介:姚劍鵬,寧波工程學院外國語學院教授、博士。主要研究方向為話語分析、認知語言學。電子郵箱:yjpjimmy@126.com

1. 引言

教師話語是課堂教學的組成部分,起著修補學習者言語錯誤、評判學習者表現、向學習者提供可理解性輸入和輸出,以及充當目的語的信息源等作用。自20世紀50年代起,西方語言學界就開始系統研究課堂教學;到了70～80年代,對教師課堂話語的研究更加深入,涌現出大量描述和理解外語課堂的研究成果。近年來,相關研究關注教師話語中的語碼轉換、教師提問、課堂行為、附帶的文化信息等等。

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(責任編輯吳詩玉)

然而,從整個研究來看,教師話語的研究視角還較為狹窄,仍“可以對教師話語從諸如自我修正、非流利因子、韻律等多角度進行研究”(周學恒、鄧曉明2012:112)。從教師話語本身來看,在我國二語課堂里,還存在著諸如形式與功能單一、簡化和單向等問題(張敏2012:41);開放性的、激發學習者想象力和發散思維的提問比例還極少(何安平2003:169),因此,充分發揮教師話語作用以促進學習者的語言習得尤為必要,從會話自我修補視角研究教師話語有其實踐和運用價值,而針對教師話語中的修補啟動展開研究也有其意義所在。

會話自我修補是話者在交際過程中對所監控到的各類言語錯誤進行自我改正的行為。它充斥在人類自然言語當中,也常見于二語課堂,是衡量學習者二語習得成功與否的關鍵因素。通過修補,學習者獲得理解了的輸入和可理解性輸出(Cho 2008:18)。要想獲得此效果,學習者的修補意識要加強,對修補的啟動要得法。本文以我國二語課堂師生互動環境為背景,針對課堂話語中教師對學習者的自我修補啟動行為,分啟動者、啟動位和啟動技巧等方面進行梳理,并結合課堂語料,討論教師修補啟動的特征及其作用。

2. 教師修補啟動

Terzi(2010:777)認為修補啟動是“其中一個對話者就所檢測到的語誤發出信號的過程”。國內學者馬文(2004,引自朱婭蓉2010:66)則將其定義為“引出自我修正或要求他人進行修正的一個信號”。我們認為,兩定義均欠完整,故提出下列定義:修補啟動是啟動者在監控到語誤之后通過言語或非言語手段向交際對方發出修補信號并啟動修補,以便后者實施修補的行為,達到理想化交流和習得語言的目的。

2.1修補啟動者

1977年,Schegloff等人在對會話修補的研究中,提出了修補啟動這一概念。他們將啟動分為自啟(self-initiation)和他啟(other-initiation),并將會話修補分為自啟/自補(self-initiation/self-repair)、自啟/他補(self-initiation/other-repair)、他啟/自補(other-initiation/self-repair)和他啟/他補(other-initiation/other repair)等四種修補類型。可見,從啟動者角度來劃分,修補啟動有話者本人(自啟)或其他話者(他啟)所作的啟動(Yasui 2010:43)。

例1①顯示了話者自啟自補的特點和過程。話者Alina發現了言語錯誤,隨即停止了語流,對言語錯誤啟動并實施修補,之后再恢復語流。其特點是整個修補過程均在同一話輪中。例2中的Rickie似乎難以提取有關購物袋的信息,語流分別暫停在“sh-”和“old be-”之后。對此,Rebecca試圖通過提供有關購物袋信息來啟動修補,最后Rickie作了修補。此例中,Rebecca兩次啟動修補(shopping bag?和a plastic)。與例1相比,此類修補跨越了話輪。

(1) ALINA: ～Hector] was s- —

you know,

they were scoring?

...the...show last week?

And I—

...and I called up [to talk] to him,

(SBC0006)

(2) RICKIE: ...Like a sh=-,

...like a... [old be-,

REBECCA: [Shopping bag]?

RICKIE: Yeah]=.

a shopping [bag].

REBECCA: [a plas]tic,

RICKIE: Yeah[=]. (SBC0008)

Schegloff等人的研究還揭示,在自然言語環境下,自啟數量超過他啟。二語課堂里的情景卻不盡相同。研究指出,語言學習者傾向于自我修補而不是他人修補(Buckwalter 2001;Foster & Ohta 2005),其自我修補的頻率超過本族語者(Kormos 2000)。但由于諸如說話太輕、發音不準確、選詞有誤或提供了模糊的解釋等原因,學習者的交流時常遭遇失敗(Comeau & Genesee 2001),再加上本身語言水平有限,使得他們轉而依賴教師來啟動修補,因此,他啟自補在數量上超過了自啟自補。據統計,在二語課堂里,有74%的自我修補是由教師啟動的(McHoul 1990:366),相比之下,由學習者自我啟動的自我修補則十分缺乏(McHoul 1990:353)。

那么,在中國二語課堂環境下,學習者會話自我修補情景又如何呢?相關研究揭示,在我國的二語課堂話語中,他啟自補或他啟他補的現象十分突出(楊曉健2008),而且啟動者多為教師(楊曉健2008;朱婭蓉2010)。本研究支持此類說法,但認為在師生互動環境下,修補形式為教師啟動修補,學習者實施自我修補。除此之外,還存在著生生互動以及學習者自我言語的現象,因此,啟動也可由另一學習者啟動,也可自我啟動,這與課堂交際形式有關,與教師和學習者的角色和地位有關。

因此,根據二語課堂互動環境的性質以及參與者的角色和地位,修補啟動者應以教師為主。

2.2修補啟動位

修補啟動有其較為固定的位置(placement of repair initiation)。最早指出這一現象的是Schegloff等人。他們指出,極大多數的修補啟動位于同話輪、話輪轉換處或包括阻礙源話輪在內的第三個話輪。然而,他們的研究是針對自然言語環境下的自我修補,那么,二語課堂自我修補的啟動位又如何呢?

從語料來看,我們認為,二語課堂互動環境下學習者自我修補的啟動位在第二話輪,課堂修補的主要軌跡應為他啟自補,表現為三話輪修補模式,即阻礙源話輪(第一話輪)、修補啟動話輪(第二話輪)和修補話輪(第三話輪),亦即:

trouble source (TS, T1)→repair initiation (RI, T2)→self-repair (SR, T3)

這一結論與McHoul(1990:355)和Makinen(2008:18)的研究發現相吻合,也得到了本文所依托的英語視聽說課堂語料的支持。例如:

(3) S5: And when when husband was in no mood, she knows... (TS, T1)

T: She knows how to (RI, T2)

S5: encourage and inspire his husband. (SR, T3) when when husband was in no mood, she knows... (TS, T1)

T: She knows how to (RI, T2)

S5: encourage and inspire his husband. (SR, T3)

(4) S2: Because first she is a new comer in the USA, so he must so she must find a family to support her. (TS, T1)

T: Is that so? Oh, what do you mean by supporting her, financially or? (RI1, T2)

S2: No, no no. @此處為漢語Support means maybe sometimes she will have some troubles in. Maybe sometimes she will feel very sad, and and, (SR1, T3)

T: So you mean a kind of spiritual supporting? (RI2, T4)

S2: Yes. (SR2, T5) first she is a new comer in the USA, so he must so she must find a family to support her. (TS, T1)

T: Is that so? Oh, what do you mean by supporting her, financially or? (RI1, T2)

S2: No, no no. @此處為漢語Support means maybe sometimes she will have some troubles in. Maybe sometimes she will feel very sad, and and, (SR1, T3)

T: So you mean a kind of spiritual supporting? (RI2, T4)

S2: Yes. (SR2, T5)

以上兩例均符合上述結論。例3中的教師結合視聽說教材內容,組織學習者討論“心目中的理想丈夫/妻子”。于是,學習者S5認為,當丈夫情緒不佳時,做妻子的應該做點什么。然而,他顯然碰到了概念提取問題,無法提取正確的有關妻子該做點什么的信息。教師隨即用重復加how to來啟動修補,為S5提供了一定的提示。S5領會了教師的意圖,采取即刻修補的策略(instant repair),直接實施了修補。例4中,教師T聽到了S2的不充分信息to support her,隨即發出了質疑,用what do you mean by結構啟動了對該信息的修補,S2在第三話輪中進行了修補,并得到了教師的第二次修補啟動,在第五話輪中最終完成整個修補。雖然修補啟動和學習者的自我修補延續到了第4和第5個話輪,但是,其軌跡仍然是阻礙源、修補啟動和自我修補三個階段。

這樣的觀點也符合課堂話語的三步模式。1975年,伯明翰學派話語分析法代表人物Sinclair和Coulhard提出IRF課堂話語模式,即教師的引發步(initiating move)、學習者的應答步(responding move)和教師的反饋步(feedback move)。之后因避免語義歧義,他們將第三步feedback修改為follow-up。1979年,Mehan提出IRE模式,即教師提出問題(initiation)、學生回答(response)與教師評價(evaluation)三步。1990年,McHoul將IRE模式修正為IREC模式,即教師提出問題(initiation)、學生回答(reply)、教師評價(evaluation)和學生或教師改正(correction)。

我們認為,在課堂師生互動環境下,話語模式應為TIR模式,即學生產生阻礙源步(trouble source move,T),教師引發修補步(repair initiation move,I),學生做出修補步(self-repair move,R)。這是因為上述模式雖有其可取之處,卻忽視了引發教師啟動修補的源頭即學生的阻礙源;從課堂話語的實際來看,師生互動主要是針對學習者的言語錯誤而引發的,理應將學生的阻礙源考慮進去。例如:

(5) S5: Ah, I like a movie directed by Jay, ahTheSecretTheSecretThatCan’tTell.

T: En, OK.

S5: I like it very much. I I watch this movie at least five times. I think it’s ah it’s very move. (T)

T: It’s very moving. (I)

S5: It’s very moving. Er, ah, (R) I like a movie directed by Jay, ahTheSecretTheSecretThatCan’tTell.

T: En, OK.

S5: I like it very much. I I watch this movie at least five times. I think it’s ah it’s very move. (T)

T: It’s very moving. (I)

S5: It’s very moving. Er, ah, (R)

上例中,學生在言語表達中認為上述影片非常感人,因此看了至少五遍,但是,他將感人的詞語選錯了,該用“moving”,但提取了錯詞“move”,詞匯使用錯誤,產生了阻礙源步。在下一話輪中,教師監控到了學生的言語偏誤,隨即啟動了修補,引發了修補啟動步。這里,教師直接采用了顯性糾錯策略。學生S5領會了教師的糾錯信息,因此重復了教師的修正信息加以自我修補,并用填充詞er和ah加以肯定,完成了修補步。

2.3修補啟動技巧

修補啟動技巧指的是會話修補的啟動者利用言語和非言語手段來啟動修補的技巧。從言語上來劃分,有填充詞huh、um等;疑問詞what、who、where、when等;部分重復加上疑問詞或部分重復、重復等以及you mean加上對前話輪的理解話語等。從非言語上來劃分,有語流暫停、語音拉長、詞尾音拉長、詞間停頓、語調打斷、手勢、目視等(Seedhouse 2004:146;Hennoste 2005:83),還包括喉塞音、升調等(Buckwalter 2001)。

Liebscher和Dailey-O’Cain(2003:379-388)研究發現了以下修補啟動策略有:(1)教師使用話語標記詞hmm?等來提示語誤并啟動修補;(2)教師用hmm?以及重復學習者言語來啟動修補;(3)教師用語碼轉換來啟動修補;(4)重復以修正;(5)重復以確認;(6)部分重復加疑問詞;(7)教師的理解檢查加語碼轉換和解釋;(8)教師用in what way等句型要求解釋,等等。需要指出的是,上述修補啟動策略還有強、弱之分,并形成了一定的等級,而且偏強啟動勝過偏弱啟動(Schegloff 2007:101)。

關于我國二語課堂的教師修補啟動技巧,國內研究似不多見。現有對技巧的分類均延續西方研究者的劃分,即非特定的pardon等、重復要求、部分重復加疑問詞、部分重復、要求釋義、翻譯和解釋等(楊曉健2008;崔海迪2011)。

根據本文依托的語料,共發現了wh型、you mean型、重復型、一般疑問句型和其它型等教師修補啟動技巧。

2.3.1wh型

語料顯示,教師習慣用what、which等特殊疑問句來表達自己對學習者言語的疑問,要求學習者進一步加以澄清或釋義。例如:

(6) S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.

T: A boy. Which boy? The younger one or the elder one? Here is the problem. Maybe some of you think just the the elder one, the Richard. The younger one that’s Robbie

S1: Robbie. think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.

T: A boy. Which boy? The younger one or the elder one? Here is the problem. Maybe some of you think just the the elder one, the Richard. The younger one that’s Robbie

S1: Robbie.

例6中,教師要求學習者指出誰是讓女孩一見鐘情的男孩,是Richard還是Robbie,最后,學習者S1認為是Robbie。

2.3.2you mean型

從語料來上看,you mean型明顯起著理解確認的作用。例如:

(7) T: Oh, you want to be a pilot.

S7: Yes.

T: Pilot. You mean in the air?

S7: Yeah.

T: Up the air?

S7: Not for the travelers or businessmen, nut during the natural disasters, I can fly to the areas to help the people. you want to be a pilot.

S7: Yes.

T: Pilot. You mean in the air?

S7: Yeah.

T: Up the air?

S7: Not for the travelers or businessmen, nut during the natural disasters, I can fly to the areas to help the people.

例7中,教師要學習者談個人今后想要從事的理想職業。S7表示想當飛行員。教師做出理解確認后,學生意識到pilot的多層意思,所以再次確認,并啟動修補兩次。

2.3.3重復型

此類重復有三種類型組成,即完全重復、部分重復以及部分重復加wh詞。例如:

(8) S6: My family has three laws.

T: Oh, your family has three laws, oh, how does it mean?

S6: The first law is that my wife should listen to me. family has three laws.

T: Oh, your family has three laws, oh, how does it mean?

S6: The first law is that my wife should listen to me.

(9) S7: First, I want to say feel sorry about this.

T: Be sorry about what?

S7: My true ideal job has nothing to do with my major. I want to say feel sorry about this.

T: Be sorry about what?

S7: My true ideal job has nothing to do with my major.

例8顯示,教師重復了S6的全部信息,由此啟動了對該信息的修補。例9的教師重復了部分單詞,然后再加上wh疑問詞,要求S7做出進一步的解釋性修補,而學生進行了相應信息修補。

2.3.4一般疑問句型

教師還會用一般疑問句形式啟動修補。例如:

(10) S1: Ah, I think she is on purpose.

T: Ah, she left her bag on purpose. Do you have particular reason for doing that?

S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy. I think she is on purpose.

T: Ah, she left her bag on purpose. Do you have particular reason for doing that?

S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.

上例中,教師用一般疑問句Do you have啟動了修補,要求學習者給予進一步的澄清。S1在接下去的言語中做出了相應的解釋。

2.3.5其他型

(11) W/C: Vice president

T: She is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語Just a department for a company.此處為漢語Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語音頻播放部分You just listen is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語Just a department for a company.此處為漢語Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語音頻播放部分You just listen president

T: She is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語Just a department for a company.此處為漢語Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語音頻播放部分You just listen is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語Just a department for a company.此處為漢語Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語音頻播放部分You just listen

本例教師先用一句肯定句加疑問詞啟動修補,然后從小孩的特性入手,將討論引導到小孩喜歡的玩具,再引導到玩具公司,最后通過錄音,確定了主人公的最后職務。這樣,通過一系列的修補啟動和啟發式引導,最后才弄清了具體的信息。

(12) S6: My ideal job

T: You ideal job is

S6: Is to be a superstar@

T: Superstar in Chinese you mean此處為漢語

S6: Oh,no.此處為漢語

T:此處為漢語

例11中的教師通過層層誘導,不斷啟動修補,最終產生完整的修補信息。例12中的教師采用的方法也是誘導。她通過重復加添加的方式,引導學習者予以修補,并使信息完整。

3. 教師修補啟動的作用

修補啟動技巧如果運用得好,在教學實踐上一定會起到推動作用。我們將上述技巧運用到英語視聽說課的師生互動當中,得到如下實踐效果。

3.1提升注意力

教師能夠對學習者的言語錯誤提供修補反饋并采取有效策略啟動修補,關鍵是教師能監控并識別學習者的言語錯誤,其中注意機制起著關鍵的作用。因為這一修補現象的實質是教師把“注意”隨機轉移到語言形式特征上,從而達到“提升注意力”之目的,進而糾正錯誤。例如:

(13) S2: Very nice father. And I think he is also very educated.

T: Very educated? We we called a person well-educated.

S2: Yeah, well-educated. And I think he is very calm because he can’t find the way and it is the first time for his blind dating. But he is very calm.

T: Yeah, not moody at all. nice father. And I think he is also very educated.

T: Very educated? We we called a person well-educated.

S2: Yeah, well-educated. And I think he is very calm because he can’t find the way and it is the first time for his blind dating. But he is very calm.

T: Yeah, not moody at all.

上例中,當學習者S2說到視聽材料中的人物是非常不錯的父親,又顯得很有文化(very educated)時,教師監控到了語誤,并用重復加疑問句升調的形式啟動修補,做出了正確與否的評判,并給出了準確的信息。學習者明白了錯誤并實施了修補。這樣,達到了使學習者準確習得目的語的目的。

有了教師的注意和修補啟動,學習者才能注意到教師的修補啟動,并注意到自己的言語產出與目的語的正確的語言形式之間所存在的差距,進而做出修補反應(uptake),即采取一定的修補策略實施修補。教師的修補啟動實際上就是提升注意力的行為。

3.2留面子

會話修補的社會語言學研究價值在于通過對言語錯誤的修補,人們意欲維持面子需求,保持一致。如果話者被聽者在很多別的聽者面前直接指出語誤,話者的積極面子(positive face)就會受損(Tang 2011:94)。

為了保住學習者的積極面子,教師與其說是直接更正學習者的言語錯誤,倒不如給對方一個機會以便挽回面子。于是,各種修補啟動技巧起到了留面子的作用,見例:

(14) S2: Another reason is because the girl is major in Ma-Math.

T: Math? Science? Yes, science. She is at science major.

S2: Ah, science.

T: Yeah, she is at science major. reason is because the girl is major in Ma-Math.

T: Math? Science? Yes, science. She is at science major.

S2: Ah, science.

T: Yeah, she is at science major.

上例中,學習者S2認為該女孩的專業是數學。但教師認為,不應該是數學專業,應該是理科專業。這時,教師沒有直截了當地給予否定,而是用問題形式加升調發出監測到語誤的信號。為了進一步避免強加,教師用yes加以緩沖,然后啟動修補。在接下來的話輪中,學習者進行了自我修補,肯定了教師的糾錯行為。在第四個話輪中,教師才最后加以確認。可以清楚地看到,教師在不斷給面子、留面子,避免傷害學習者的自尊。

3.3促進語言習得

人們認為含有修補的意義協商過程可以使語言的習得更快、更容易。學習者在學習如何運用修補策略進行有效的會話的同時,也習得了句法結構知識和詞匯知識。當學習者參與會話,通過請求、澄清、修補等策略進行意義協商來完成社會活動中的各種行為時,他才能習得語言規則性的成分。教師的修補啟動能夠有效地幫助學習者習得目標語知識。

上述例5中的學習者S5感到電影非常動人,然而他在提取moving的時候有困難,以至于用了填充詞(ah)以及自我重復(it’s)。但經過這些之后,他所提取的詞匯仍然是錯詞move。這時教師就啟動了修補,直接給出了對詞moving。學習者重復了對詞,而且用er和ah加以確認和肯定,從而習得了moving這一詞匯。

3.4幫助輸入與輸出

會話修補的目的是為了促進輸入與輸出。因此,保輸入便是教師啟動修補的另一目的。通過修補啟動,使學習者有效地實現目的語的輸入,從而確保可理解性輸出。例如:

(15) S5: Ah, I think the ah er I think Jay in this movie plays very well. And he ex ex express his idea of er ah.

T: Of romance.

S5: Of romance. I think the ah er I think Jay in this movie plays very well. And he ex ex express his idea of er ah.

T: Of romance.

S5: Of romance.

本例的學習者S5在評論電影主人公時,認為主人公表達了某種思想,可是在提取該種思想的準確詞匯時碰到了問題,以致連續出現了兩個填充詞er和ah。這時候,教師進行了提示并啟動修補。在下一話輪中,學習者領會了教師的意圖,用重復的方式做出了自我修補。

以上實踐得出,教師的修補啟動具有提升注意力、留住面子、促進習得、幫助輸入與輸出等作用。

4. 結語

我們認為,在二語課堂互動環境下,修補的啟動者應為教師或其他學習者。其修補的軌跡為三話輪模式即阻礙源話輪、修補啟動話輪和修補話輪;因此,修補啟動位在第二話輪。在修補過程中,教師會憑借各種修補啟動技巧來啟動修補,以便幫助學習者提升注意力,實現可理解性輸入與輸出,從而習得語言。

從語料也不難看出,我國外語教師的修補啟動技巧無論從形式上還是數量上尚欠不足,對啟動策略的運用意識也不夠強。

因此,在組織外語教學過程中,教師應認識到自我修補以及修補啟動對提高課堂教學質量以及幫助學習者習得語言所起的作用,重視對學習者會話自我修補能力的開發和培養,給予他們足夠的機會通過形式協商來自我修補語言形式上的錯誤。同時,在啟動修補時,選擇合適的修補啟動形式和啟動位,掌握一定的修補啟動策略,使學習者的自我修補得以實施,從而幫助學習者習得語言。

同時,學生也應正確理解會話自我修補在外語習得中所起的作用,自覺運用各種修補策略來提高自身的交際能力,并對教師的修補啟動以及各種技巧有充分的認識,提高修補反應能力以及對言語錯誤實施修補的能力。

教師的修補啟動直接關系到學習者是否完成成功的修補。成功的修補有助于課堂互動,能有效地促進學習者習得外語。本研究只是基于英語視聽說語料對該問題做了一些探索,相信,隨著語料的不斷豐富和完善以及研究的深入,圍繞修補及其啟動以及對學習者習得外語的影響等研究課題,會有更多的發現。

附注

① 例1和例2來自Santa Barbara美國英語口語語料庫(簡稱SBC)。

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(責任編輯吳詩玉)

Abstracts of Major Papers in This Issue

Foreign Language Classroom Research: Retrospects and Prospects, by XU Jinfen, p. 1

From the nature and purpose of foreign language classroom research, this paper first retrospectively reviews the characteristics of foreign language classroom research, namely the method comparison research in the 1960s, the individualized teaching research in the 1970s, the individual learner factor research in the 1980s, and the classroom process research in the 1990s. It then discusses the research foci since the 21st century, such as the classroom interaction and focus-on-form teaching and introduces four main methods of foreign language classroom empirical research including the descriptive research, the experimental research, the ethnographic research, and the correlational research. Finally, it proposes prospects for the future foreign language classroom research from the macro and micro levels in order to provide a reference for researchers.

The Holistic Appraisal Construction in Multimodal History Textbooks, by SHI Chunxu & WANG Zhenhua, p. 8

Following Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory on verbal-visual semiotics and in reference to Martin and Rose’s (2007) model on text-image relationship, the paper proposes a theoretical framework on multimodal appraisal and explore the influence of text-image relationship on holistic appraisal construction in the case study of multimodal historical textbooks. Based on statistical analysis, it is found that the text-image relations make inter-modal links and connect them as a comprehensive whole. The proper text-image relations may create synchrony rather than the reverse between verbal appraisal and image appraisal. In the discourse of multimodal historical textbooks, it is shown that expansion outnumbers projection in holistic appraisal construction and multimodal appraisal under different types of text-image relationship is probabilistically related to certain historical genres during the instantiation of evaluation.

Interactions in Linguistic and Multimodal Texts: A Case Study ofPrideandPrejudice, by QU Tao, p. 14

Interactions in linguistic text and multimodal text have long been respectively studied in linguistic field. However, comparative studies on the two kinds of texts are few. With the systemic functional approach, this research has compared a novel chapter with its corresponding film part inPrideandPrejudice, from the aspects of interaction type, degree and means. It is found that interactions between represented participants are similar between the two texts, but there are big differences in interactions between interactive participants and also between represented and interactive participants. This research helps better understand interactions in the two kinds of texts, and also contributes to resemioticization studies in which different semiotic resources are used to realize the same meaning.

A Multimodal Stylistic Study on the Two Covers of Graham Rawle’sWoman’sWorld, by LEI Qian & ZHANG Delu, p. 20

The cover of a novel is itself a multimodal meaning integration of verbal mode, image, typography, layout and color, and it is also integrated with the meaning of the content of the novel. In the present study, two versions of the covers of modern British writer Graham Rawle’sWoman’sWorldare chosen as research objects, and on the basis of the multimodal stylistic framework of Zhang Delu (2012), a new approach to analyze multimodal covers is proposed by adding some new modes, such as typography, layout and color to it. By employing this approach, the multimodal stylistic features and the meaning realizations of the two covers, the inter-semiotic relations of the covers and the integration of the covers and the content of the novel are comparatively studied. The results show that the cover of the 2008 version can more appropriately convey the deep experiential meaning and interpersonal meaning of the novel to readers and fulfill its function.

On the Assessment Framework for Chinese College Students’ Multiliteracies in Foreign Languages, by LIU Rui & ZHANG Delu, p. 26

The assessment of learners is an important part of classroom teaching. On the basis of the research on multiliteracies assessment, the goal of fostering qualified Chinese foreign language personnel and the components of muliliteracies, this article proposes an assessment framework for Chinese college students’ multiliteracies in foreign languages. The assessment of multiliteracies in foreign languages can be done by designing tasks concerned, observing students’ performances and adopting multiple assessment methods in a particular context.

A Cognitive Pragmatic Approach to Referential Ambiguity in Advertisements: A Case Study of Car Ads, by SHEN Xingchen & CHEN Xinren, p. 33

This study adopts a pragma-cognitive approach to referential ambiguity as found in car advertisements. Drawing on Blending Theory (BT) and Relevance Theory (RT), we establish a pragma-cognitive analytical framework for utterance interpretation in communicative context. Within the framework, we depict the procedure of advertisement interpretation as follows: first, the audience of the advertisements construct two input spaces, namely “car” space and “person/car-owner” space, based on the ostensive stimulus (i.e. the language of the advertisements), the immediate context, and related cognitive models stored in long-term memory; then, they will map the content in the input spaces onto the blended space, namely “person-car” space; as a result, they finally acquire a set of weak implicatures and poetic effects intended by the advertisers to help to achieve their communicative goal, that is, to persuade the audience to buy a particular brand of car. We also find that car advertisers choose to emphasize different features depending on the car type, and the identity and need of the potential customers in order to achieve different poetic effects. The study indicates the explanatory power of the pragma-cognitive framework we build for the interpretation of utterances in context and supports the adequate operability and compatibility of integrating RT and BT.

Diachronic Changes of Discourse and Identity Construction: A Historical Sociopragmatic Perspective, by WANG Xueyu, p. 39

Historical socio-pragmatic scholars emphasize the following relation between discourse, interlocutors’ identities and historical socio-context: interlocutors’ identities are constructed discursively, and both identity construction and discursive strategies are constrained by historical socio-context and changes with the contextual development. Based on such a view, the present study attempts to conduct a diachronic analysis of advertisers’ identity construction from the 1980s to the 2000s, focusing on the diachronic changes of identity types and discursive strategies. Besides, the paper illustrates the context sensitivity of identity construction through the analysis of the influence of social cultures and values on identity construction.

Socio-psychological Mechanism Underlying Misleading Vague Language in Advertisements: A Critical Pragmatic Analysis, by QIAN Yonghong, p. 44

Previous studies of advertisements revealed the potentially misleading or deceptive effect of vague language used in advertisements, but failed to explore the socio-psychological mechanism behind the use of misleading or deceptive vague discourse. In view of this research gap, the present study, adopting the methods of audience survey and interview, aims to investigate the socio-psychological factors adapted to by advertisers in the use of misleading vague discourse within the framework of critical pragmatics. The analysis shows that TV shopping advertisers tend to focus on prospective customers’ psychological tendencies (such as blind belief in high technology and authority, pursuit of cheapness and novelty, crowd mentality, etc.) and adapt negatively to those mentalities in the use of vague discourses so as to mislead the customers into buying their products. This study could provide some reference for the government departments concerned in their supervision and management of the TV advertising programs.

Memetic Strategies in Micro-movie Advertisements, by WU Jue & YAO Yayan, p. 49

The replication of a meme goes through such stages as assimilation, retention, expression and transmission. Some transmission strategies can help build a powerful meme. The replication and transmission of memes are also reflected in advertising. One of the factors that contribute to the success of the newly-emerged micro-movie advertisements, to some extent, is the use and transmission of powerful memes. In the micro-movie advertisements named “Sour, Sweet, Bitter and Spicy”, which are made to promote the sugar-free chewing gum of Extra?, there are three major strategies of transmitting the powerful memes, namely the strategy of repetition, the strategy of emotional adaptation, and the strategy of cognitive dissonance. The use of these strategies helps people remember deeply some powerful memes in these micro-movie advertisements.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge for EFL Public Speaking, by FENG Ruimin, p. 52

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has become a widely accepted academic construct. This study investigates the PCK of five EFL (English as a Foreign Language) public speaking teachers. Case study is used as the research method, and the data collection involves class observation, interviews, and documents. A PCK framework grounded in the data is developed for EFL public speaking teachers, which is composed of five core knowledge categories, namely, knowledge of curriculum, language, instruction, students and assessment. There are sets of discrete knowledge within each core knowledge category, which embodies the topic specificity of situated PCK.

ELF: A New Research Topic in International Applied Linguistics, by MA Yan & LI Lisheng, p. 58

With the growing globalization and regional cooperation, English has seen a widespread use in all sorts of settings and has become the common contact language among speakers of different linguacultural backgrounds. This has consequently both challenged and promoted English language teaching. Over the past 15 years or so English as a lingua franca (ELF) has become a popular and booming field that has attracted a great deal of attention and practices within English language education and applied linguistics. After a brief survey of the development of ELF, the current paper defines ELF and then introduces the major findings of research into the nature of ELF in terms of its domains and linguistic levels. The paper ends with some implications of ELF for English language teaching and learning in China.

An Insight into Repair Initiation in L2 Teacher Discourse, by YAO Jianpeng, p. 70

Repair initiation is an important phase in the speech self-repair mechanism in which the initiator sends the repair signal by linguistic and non-linguistic means to the interlocutor for him to repair the speech errors detected. The present paper discusses the teacher repair initiation in the teacher discourse in the L2 teacher-student interactive classroom context in the light of repair initiator, placement and technique and studies the features and the effects of the Chinese English teachers’ repair initiation in the like context based on the data collected.