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膠質瘤對替莫唑胺的耐藥性機制研究進展

2017-01-12 19:49:22徐小珊涂艷陽
轉化醫學電子雜志 2017年7期

徐小珊,涂艷陽

(第四軍醫大學唐都醫院實驗外科,陜西西安710038)

·綜述·

膠質瘤對替莫唑胺的耐藥性機制研究進展

徐小珊,涂艷陽

(第四軍醫大學唐都醫院實驗外科,陜西西安710038)

目前,臨床上針對膠質瘤的標準治療方案為手術切除聯合放化療.替莫唑胺(TMZ)是一種新型的口服烷化劑,由于它能穿過血腦屏障到達患者的腫瘤病灶,發揮持久的治療作用,被廣泛用于膠質瘤的聯合治療.但是,由于替莫唑胺耐藥性的產生,使得患者的生存期縮短,預后差.這種耐藥性產生的機制十分復雜,主要包括DNA修復酶的激活,表皮生長因子受體(EGFR)和半乳凝素?1的過表達,p53,雙微體 2(Mdm2),磷酸酶及張力蛋白同源基因(PTEN)以及miRNAs的異常調控.因此,探討膠質瘤對替莫唑胺耐藥性的產生機制以及如何有效地降低替莫唑胺耐藥性,提高其療效已經成為一個迫切需要解決的問題.本文將介紹GBM對TMZ耐藥的主要機制,以期為膠質瘤的臨床治療提供充足的理論依據.

替莫唑胺;耐藥性;膠質瘤

0 引言

膠質瘤是一種原發性腦腫瘤,其惡性程度高,約占所有原發性神經系統腫瘤的30%.致死率在35歲以下的全部惡性腫瘤中居第二位.其中,多形性膠質母細胞瘤(glioblastoma multiform,GBM)又占腦膠質瘤的一半以上,其惡性程度最高,每年的發病率約為百萬分之五.因為GBM生長快速,侵襲性強,僅靠手術很難完全切除,這使得腦膠質瘤極易在術后復發[1-2].據有效數據統計,原發性的GBM多發于年齡大于55歲的患者,而繼發性的GBM多發于年齡在55歲以下的患者,大多是由低級別的膠質瘤發展而來,只占GBM的10%左右[3].目前,對膠質瘤的治療主要是手術切除聯合放化療,臨床實踐證明化療可以有效提高惡性膠質瘤患者的生存時間與生存率.

替莫唑胺(temozolomide,TMZ)是一種口服烷化劑,能穿過血腦屏障直達病灶,是臨床上化療腦膠質瘤的一線常用藥物之一[4].TMZ通過攻擊腫瘤細胞的DNA,致使DNA烷基化受損,損傷的部位主要在N7,N3,O6位的鳥嘌呤以及O3位腺嘌呤上,DNA烷基化受損以后會產生交聯,從而誘導癌細胞死亡[5].有研究表明,用TMZ治療人腦膠質瘤的有效率約為45%[6].其中,腦膠質瘤對TMZ產生耐藥性是導致化療失敗的最主要原因.

有文獻研究[7]發現,腦膠質瘤產生TMZ耐藥性不是由單一因素影響導致的,主要還包括DNA損傷修復,腫瘤細胞中促癌與抑癌基因的表達,化療藥物刺激后機體的應急反應以及藥物對組織的滲透性等方面.本文主要針對近年來關于膠質瘤對TMZ耐藥性產生的機制進行整理與綜述.

1 TMZ的作用機制及結構

TMZ是一種僅在酸性pH下穩定存在的咪唑并四嗪類烷化劑[8].該藥進入體循環以后快速轉化為活性化合物3?甲基?(三嗪?1?)咪唑?4?甲酰胺(MTIC),MTIC隨后與水反應生成5?氨基咪唑?4?甲酰胺(AIC)和高反應性甲基重氮陽離子(半衰期=0.4 s).該不穩定的陽離子可以通過甲基轉移引發TMZ的細胞毒性反應[9].該細胞毒性反應主要發生在DNA分子N7,N3,O6位的鳥嘌呤以及O3位腺嘌呤上,雖然O6位上的烷基化只占所有甲基化總數的5%左右,但是它是引起TMZ產生細胞毒性的最主要原因[10].比較而言,N7,N3位上的烷基化相對頻繁,約占烷基化總數的80%~85%和8%~18%[11].

2 腦膠質瘤對TMZ產生耐藥性的機制

隨著時間的推移,腦膠質瘤細胞對TMZ引起的損傷產生抵抗.這個抗性的產生與多個機制有關,如DNA修復機制,表皮生長因子受體(epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR)的過表達,galectin?1和雙微體2(murine double minute 2,Mdm2)的表達,p53突變以及磷酸酶和張力蛋白同源物(phosphatase and tensin homolog,PTEN)的表達.此外,TMZ對腦膠質瘤耐藥性的產生與microRNA(miRNA)表達譜的改變也有一定的相關性.

2.1 DNA修復機制

2.1.1 MGMT GBM抗性的主要機理涉及甲基鳥嘌呤甲基轉移酶(MGMT),一種修復DNA的酶.MGMT相對分子質量為22 kDa,它不僅可以除去連接到O6位鳥嘌呤中的甲基,而且可以除去其它烷基如乙基、異丙基和丁基[12].比較而言,MGMT除去甲基比其他烷基的速度要快得多[12].通過除去O6位鳥嘌呤上的甲基,可以直接修復由TMZ引起的病變[13].MGMT作為一種自殺式的修復酶,當其修復DNA上的甲基時,其145位催化中心上的半胱氨酸殘基發生改變,從而導致其失活[14].隨后MGMT被蛋白酶體降解,不再循環發揮作用[15].在不同類型的腫瘤中MGMT的表達水平有所不同[16].MGMT基因不常發生突變或缺失[17].MGMT的表達水平與MGMT啟動子的甲基化相關.一些研究表明,MGMT的表達水平與多鳥嘌呤胞嘧啶(CpG)的甲基化概率成反比[17].MGMT基因的沉默是通過其CpG島啟動子上的高度甲基化來完成的[18].有數據統計,約有45%的新患GBM的患者呈現出MGMT啟動子的甲基化,因此他們對TMZ的治療反應更好[19].能夠抑制MGMT活性的治療分子如O6?芐基鳥嘌呤(O6?BG)和O6?(4?溴苯基)鳥嘌呤已被用于TMZ治療前的預治療中[11,20-21].在體內和體外實驗的研究中,這些化合物通過與MGMT作用降低細胞中MGMT的含量,從而達到增強TMZ治療活性的目的.它們主要通過將芐基或溴苯基共價轉移到MGMT的活性半胱氨酸殘基上,引起該酶的不可逆失活,從而發揮效應.盡管這些偽底物使得TMZ治療的有效性提高,但它們對正常細胞,特別是骨髓細胞的高毒性導致這些分子不能被廣泛應用在臨床治療中[19].

2.1.2 MMR DNA錯配修復(MMR)是一個修復DNA合成過程中產生核苷酸堿基錯配的系統[11].在沒有MGMT存在的情況下,O6?MG持續存在,并且與胸腺嘧啶配對.所得到的O6?MG/T可以被MMR識別,隨后新合成的鏈被切除,但是O6?MG鏈保持完好無損.當產生另一條鏈時,重復該修復周期.胸腺嘧啶插入和切除的無效循環導致細胞周期停滯和凋亡[11,23].由MMR蛋白復合物突變引起MMR途徑受損,從而導致MMR對TMZ誘導的O6?MG加合物識別和修復失敗.這些突變導致DNA錯配繼續復制并允許細胞周期進行,使得TMZ治療效果降低[24].而且,這些突變可能在細胞周期中存在或在TMZ治療過程中獲得[25].鑒于其重要性,我們應制定恢復MMR系統的策略,以期提高TMZ的療效.

2.1.3 BER 該系統含有多種蛋白質和酶,能夠修復多種因素導致的DNA損傷,如氧化劑,電離輻射或烷化劑[26-27].其中,BER系統中對DNA損傷起主要修復作用的一種酶是多聚(ADP?核糖)聚合酶?1(PARP?1).該酶與DNA結合后以NAD+作為底物,開始合成ADP?核糖聚合鏈(PAR),其能夠招募BER復合蛋白(XRCC1,DNA聚合酶,連接酶,皮瓣核酸內切酶1)進行DNA修復[28].

BER途徑可以修復由TMZ造成的N3和N7位甲基化[11,23,29].如果不修復的話,N3位病變能夠引起致命性的損傷[11,30].這些由TMZ引起的超過90%以上的甲基化都可以迅速被BER途徑修復.因此,當BER途徑的成員發生突變時TMZ引起的細胞毒性會增強.因此,利用PARP抑制劑限制BER的活性有望成為增強TMZ臨床治療效果的策略[31].與O6位上的甲基化相比,N7和N3位上的甲基化水平更高,盡管如此,在TMZ耐藥中BER發揮的作用不如MMR或MGMT重要.

2.2 EGFR和半乳凝素?1的過表達

2.2.1 EGFR EGFR,相對分子質量為170 kDa,它作為一個受體分子,在腫瘤發展中通過刺激細胞增殖、遷移、血管生成促使細胞對化療產生抵抗[32].配體與野生型EGFR結合將導致以下信號通路被激活:Ras/Raf/MAPK(有絲分裂原激活激酶)[33]或PI3K/AKT/mTOR[34].這些信號途徑在GBM中被強烈激活后會導致細胞的自噬抑制和凋亡減少,從而使TMZ的效力減弱[35].

在原發性的GBM中,EGFR基因擴增是最常見的遺傳改變,其發生率為40%[36],而且在這些原發性的GBM中,大約有一半的腫瘤都攜帶重排EGFR的基因,這導致在這些腫瘤中表達野生型EGFR以及突變的EGFR[37].在腦膠質母細胞瘤中,EGFR突變體Ⅲ(EGFRvⅢ)是EGFR受體中最常見的突變體,其具有一定的結構特征,胞外結構域中缺失了267個氨基酸,這導致受體與具有組成型酪氨酸激酶活性的配體不能結合.

臨床上已經開發了一種治療分子來抑制EGFR信號通路.例如,西妥昔單抗1,一種可以特異性結合EGFR的單克隆抗體.它可以抑制下游信號轉導途徑[38].西妥昔單抗能夠識別野生型EGFR和EGFR?vIII受體并與之結合,引起細胞增殖受到抑制.但是,在臨床治療中使用西妥昔單抗治療GBM的結果令人失望,患者的中位生存期只有五個月[39].目前,以TMZ和西妥昔單抗結合放療治療原發性GBM的Ⅰ/Ⅱ期臨床試驗正在進行[40].此外,吉非替尼1和厄洛替尼1作為酪氨酸激酶抑制劑(TKIs)也被用于抑制EGFR信號通路的激活.它們通過與細胞質中ATP結構域結合阻斷EGFR磷酸化,從而抑制EGFR介導的下游途徑活化[41].這些分子在針對GBM患者治療的臨床試驗(Ⅰ期和Ⅱ期)中已經進行了測試[42-43].雖然使用吉非替尼或厄洛替尼1聯合放射治療可以適度延長患者生存時間,但是結果并不令人滿意[44-45].有研究對TKIs和TMZ的關聯性進行了評估,結果顯示與放射治療聯合運用后接受TMZ治療的患者中位生存期確實得到了改善,但只有一小部分患者的疾病發展可被控制.實際上,GBM患者的治療結果與 PTEN的存在相關[39].而且,有文獻報道,MGMT啟動子甲基化水平高和具備完整PTEN的患者具有更顯著的生存優勢[43].

2.2.2 半乳糖凝集素?1 該蛋白屬于凝集素家族的一員,它含有一個對β?半乳糖苷高親和力的碳水化合物識別結構域(carbohydrate recognition domain,CRD)[46-47].半乳糖凝集素?1嵌入細胞膜,在細胞內外都有部分結構暴露,其位于細胞內和細胞外的結構功能不同,主要依賴于蛋白質?蛋白質相互作用.其細胞外活性取決于其本身的凝集素活性[48].星形細胞瘤的惡性程度與半乳糖凝集素?1的表達水平之間呈現出一定的相關性[49].

半乳糖凝集素?1是一種缺氧調節蛋白,是由缺氧刺激產生和分泌的[50].半乳糖凝集素已被證明在癌癥生物學的多個方面發揮重要作用:通過和整合素以及細胞外基質部分相互作用來影響細胞的遷移[51];通過調節ORP150,一種控制血管內皮生長因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)的成熟和分泌的因子[52],來刺激血管以及轉移灶的形成[53];通過與Ras蛋白相互作用[54-55]以及調控 p53在核內的遷移[54]影響化療和放療的抗性.此外,半乳糖凝集素?1通過促進凋亡來發揮抑制T細胞效應子功能,允許腫瘤細胞逃避免疫系統[50,56].鑒于其在化療和放療抗性中的重要作用,考慮了通過不同策略靶向半乳糖凝集素?1來提高膠質瘤患者的治療效果.例如,合成乳果糖作為一種β?半乳糖苷對半乳糖凝集素?1的CRD域具有較高的親和性[57].半乳甘露聚糖1能夠在不同于CRD的位點與半乳糖凝集素?1結合,從而發揮抑制作用[58].且半乳甘露聚糖1經FDA批準用于治療結腸直腸癌,并獲得了很好的結果.但是,必須進行更多的調查以評估其對GBM的影響.

2.3 p53和Mdm2在人體內部,p53是由TP53編碼的腫瘤抑制蛋白,當細胞處于應急狀態,比如DNA受到損傷時,可導致細胞生長暫時或永久停止[59-60].某些頻繁的TP53突變導致其腫瘤抑制功能喪失,且p53突變蛋白大量累積.野生型p53由于Mdm2的抑制作用其在正常條件下具有較短的半衰期[60],但在癌細胞中,這個p53突變體的半衰期不經歷這種抑制并累積到很高的水平[61].除了TP53基因的突變促進腫瘤細胞生長和放化療抗性之外[62],Mdm2作為一個在GBM中經常擴增的基因[63],其過表達也會導致p53的功能喪失[64].

由于p53缺失在膠質瘤發生發展以及抗癌藥物的抗性中發揮關鍵作用,目前正在研究多種策略以恢復p53的作用.其中用以恢復p53功能和抑制p53?Mdm2相互作用的基因治療是最重要的[65].因為基因治療可以直接將野生型p53傳遞到癌細胞中.有文獻報道,用p53的腺病毒感染細胞可以改善復發性惡性膠質瘤患者的預后[66].由于Mdm2在膠質瘤中過度表達,靶向Mdm2與p53的相互作用也是一種潛在的癌癥治療策略[67].用p53?Mdm2結合抑制劑處理細胞也會導致野生型p53蛋白穩定和積累[68],之中有代表性的分子之一Nutlin?3已經進入人們的視野,并且在臨床前研究中得到了關注.Nutlin?3能夠在p53的結合域競爭性的結合Mdm2有關,這一結果導致p53游離出來從而被激活[65,68].p53?Mdm2結合抑制劑的主要限制作用僅在表達野生型p53的癌細胞中有效,在表達突變型p53的細胞中沒有此種作用.此外,重要的是應該考慮該抑制劑可能導致的毒性作用,以及在表達p53野生型的細胞中引起p53的過表達[69].

2.4 PTENPTEN是一種腫瘤生長抑制酶,由于它在GBM中經常突變導致腫瘤細胞增殖能力加強[70-71].PTEN通過抑制PI3K和Mdm2的轉錄保護野生型p53免于滅活和降解[72].而且,p53能夠通過與PTEN啟動子結合來增強PTEN基因轉錄而增加PTEN活性[73].此外,PTEN具有增強TP53基因轉錄活性的功能,它可以通過與p53結合來提高p53的穩定性[74].在PTEN缺失或突變的腫瘤中,恢復野生型PTEN的表達可以抑制腫瘤細胞的致瘤性,促進凋亡,并增加癌細胞的化療敏感性[72,75].這表明野生型PTEN和野生型p53的關聯可以增強腫瘤細胞對抗癌藥物的敏感性,特別是對TMZ.

2.5 miRNAs在癌癥的發展進程中,miRNA作為一類新型致癌基因或抑癌基因,發揮著重要的作用[76].一些研究表明,異常的miRNA表達可能影響TMZ對GBM的敏感性[77],例如,在TMZ耐藥細胞株中miR?21,miR?195,miR?455?3p和 miR?10a?被上調[78-79].相反的,有些miRNA在腫瘤細胞中被下調,如實驗驗證miR?145在GBM腫瘤細胞中下調,這增強了TMZ的抗性[80].鑒于miRNA在癌癥發展中的雙面性,我們可以利用miRNA來開發新的治療策略,使用反義寡核苷酸或miRNA敲除手段使促癌miR?NA可以下調[81-82],而用 miRNA模擬物代替抑癌miRNA使其表達上調[83],以其達到改善癌癥患者生存的目的.

3 結語

腦膠質瘤對TMZ的耐藥性不是受單一因素的影響.通過針對相關分子的進一步研究,可以推進臨床個體化治療的方案實行.相較于傳統療法而言,個體化的化療方案可以降低膠質瘤對藥物的耐藥性,增加療效,改善患者的預后,同時,探討膠質瘤對TMZ耐藥性機制進展有助于找到某些導致腫瘤復發的新靶點,為膠質瘤的治療提供有效的新方案.

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Research advances on the mechanism of glioma resistance to temozolomide

XU Xiao?Shan,TU Yan?Yang
Department of Experimental Surgery,Tangdu Hospital,Fourth Military Medical University,Xi'an 710038,China

At present,the standard treatment strategy for glioma is surgical resection combined with radiotherapy and chemothera?py.Temozolomide(TMZ)is a novel oral alkylating agent that is widely used in the combined treatment of gliomas.Because it could pass through the blood?brain barrier to reach the patient's tumor lesions and play a lasting therapeutic effect.However,the survival time of glioma patients is short and the prognosis is poor due to the drug resistance of temozolomide.The mechanism of this drug resistance is very complex,including the activation of DNA repair enzymes,the overexpression of EGFR(epidermal growth factor receptor) and galactinin?1,the abnormal regulation of p53,Mdm2(mouse bimodal 2),PTEN(phosphatase and tonic protein homologs)and miRNAs.Therefore,we need a better un?derstanding of the mechanism of glioma resistance to temozolo?mide,which will help us to find a solution to reduce the resistance of temozolomide and improve the efficacy of chemotherapy drugs.

temozolomide;drug resistance;glioma

R739.41

A

2095?6894(2017)07?55?06

2017-05-24;接受日期:2017-06-06

國家自然科學基金(81572983);陜西省社會發展科技攻關項目 (2015SF027);唐 都 醫 院 創 新 發 展 基 金 資 助 項 目(2016JCYJ013)

徐小珊.碩士.E?mail:275720539@qq.com

涂艷陽.博士,副教授,副主任醫師.E?mail:tu.fmmu@gmail.com

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