周海燕,嚴 宏
(1陜西省人民醫院眼科,陜西西安710068;2重慶醫科大學第一附屬醫院,眼科學重慶市重點實驗室,重慶市眼科研究所,重慶400016;3第四軍醫大學唐都醫院眼科,陜西西安710038)
高同型半胱氨酸血癥與眼部疾病
周海燕1,嚴 宏2,3
(1陜西省人民醫院眼科,陜西西安710068;2重慶醫科大學第一附屬醫院,眼科學重慶市重點實驗室,重慶市眼科研究所,重慶400016;3第四軍醫大學唐都醫院眼科,陜西西安710038)
同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)是一種與半胱氨酸同系的四碳含硫氨基酸,它不參加蛋白質的合成,是體內蛋氨酸循環的正常代謝產物.研究證實高同型半胱氨酸血癥(HHcy)是多種疾病發生的潛在危險因子,包括血管疾病、神經元變性疾病等,并且HHcy與多種眼部疾病及視覺損傷有關.本文綜述了Hcy代謝異常與眼部疾病的關系及與之相關的病理學機制.
高同型半胱氨酸血癥;白內障;青光眼;糖尿病視網膜病變;視覺損傷
同型半胱氨酸(homocysteine,Hcy)是一種與半胱氨酸同系的四碳含硫氨基酸,它不參加蛋白質的合成,是蛋氨酸代謝的中間產物,是體內蛋氨酸循環的正常代謝產物.高半胱氨酸血癥(hyperhomocysteinemia,HHcy)是指外周血中經過還原作用后可生成Hcy的物質的總體含量升高.研究證實HHcy是多種疾病發生的潛在危險因子,包括血管疾病、神經元變性疾病等,并且HHcy血癥與多種眼部疾病例如糖尿病視網膜疾病、青光眼、白內障、視神經萎縮、視網膜血管阻塞等有密切的關系.研究表明高Hcy導致眼病發生的分子機制為血管內皮細胞功能受損,視網膜神經節細胞凋亡,細胞外基質改變,賴氨酰氧化酶活性降低以及氧化損傷作用.HHcy中形成的同型半胱氨酸-硫代內脂具有非常強的細胞毒性和炎癥趨化作用,可以導致晶狀體混濁和視神經的損害.
Hcy來源于食物中的蛋氨酸.正常情況下,在甲基葉酸和維生素B12的幫助下,蛋氨酸合酶催化Hcy再次甲基化為蛋氨酸.同時,在胱硫醚β-合成酶和維生素B6催化的絲氨酸轉硫作用為胱硫醚的通路中,Hcy可以被轉化為半胱氨酸.這兩種通路可以清除細胞內的Hcy.因此Hcy在細胞內的累積取決于蛋氨酸合成酶和胱硫醚β-合成酶的活性.游離Hcy可以被蛋氨酸tRNA合成酶催化為同型半胱氨酸-硫代內脂[1].蛋氨酸的再次甲基化和半胱氨酸的轉硫過程都可以產生Hcy,在這個過程中需要輔酶維生素B6、B12和甲基化葉酸.以上維生素的缺乏與HHcy的發生有關,因此許多研究推薦使用葉酸和維生素B12降低受試者體內Hcy的水平.HHcy與多種疾病如心腦血管疾病和神經元病變的發生都有密切的聯系[2-4].近期研究[5]已確認,高半胱氨酸血癥為冠心病的獨立危險因素.血Hcy濃度在11.9 μmol/L以上的患者腦白質損害的發生率是濃度低于8.6 μmol/L的患者的3倍.研究[6]表明,Hcy在血清中的含量隨年齡增長而升高,而高Hcy是導致年齡相關性疾病的重要風險因素.Hcy被認為加速了細胞和器官的老化進程[7].Hcy水平升高與心腦血管疾病、神經系統退行性疾病、糖尿病、肝硬化、慢性腎病等疾病高度相關[8-9].正常的空腹血清Hcy水平為5~15 μmol/L,根據血清中Hcy升高的程度將HHcy劃分為輕度(16~30 μmol/L)、中度(31~100 μmol/L)、重度(>100μmol/L).在人體內,70%~80%的Hcy是與蛋白質結合.N-同型半胱氨酸化的蛋白質占總Hcy的0.3%~23%,然而同型半胱氨酸-硫代內脂的量卻很少.大多數游離的Hcy被氧化或與半胱氨酸結合為二硫化合物,只有一小部分成為游離型[10-13].
Hcy含有巰基,在自動氧化過程中產生活性氧(ROS)——過氧化氫、超氧化物陰離子自由基、羥自由基產生氧化應激反應,增加體內氧化應激負擔,對組織細胞進行破壞[14].同時,Hcy抑制了抗氧化酶如SOD的活性和表達[15].Hcy還可通過特異性抑制谷胱甘肽過氧化物酶的活性,削弱機體抗氧化功能[16-19].谷兆俠等[20]研究發現,Hcy可能通過抑制機體抗氧化能力參與刺激機體氧化應激機制的發生,顯著抑制GSH的生成.Hcy代謝通路的任一環節發生異常,即可能導致Hcy轉化受阻而在體內積蓄,最終對組織器官造成損傷.
HHcy已證實與視覺受損有關.HHcy是多種眼部疾病發生的高危因素,包括視網膜動脈粥樣硬化[21]、青光眼[22-23]、滲出性年齡相關性黃斑變性[24-26]、視網膜血管阻塞導致視神經萎縮及非動脈缺血性視神經病變[27-28].
在對白內障發病機制的研究中發現,高Hcy啟動未折疊蛋白反應(unfolded protein response,UPR),削弱了晶狀體內氧化防御系統.高水平的Hcy與青少年白內障和年齡相關性白內障密切相關.Sen等[29]研究了同一年齡段人群中白內障患者及對照組無白內障患者血清Hcy水平,發現白內障組較對照組明顯升高,且增加的水平與葉酸和維生素B12水平的降低有關.Tan等[30]研究了3508位均齡65歲人的血清Hcy水平,發現在后囊下白內障人群血清Hcy水平較正常組明顯升高.有研究[31-32]已經觀察到Hcy對人類和動物晶狀體上皮細胞的影響,高濃度Hcy可以誘導晶狀體細胞發生嚴重的氧化應激反應,引起白內障的發生和發展.Hcy升高導致大量的活性氧產生,誘導細胞死亡和凋亡,可能導致皮質性白內障的形成[33].而后囊下白內障的形成可能與玻璃體內Hcy的含量增多有關[34].遺傳性高胱氨尿酸患者心血管疾病、白內障、青光眼疾病高發,被認為Hcy是造成機體老化的一個重要因素,血清中大約80%的Hcy通過二硫鍵與纖維連接蛋白或白蛋白結合[35-36],但其余20%游離于血清中存在很長時間[37],并且與白蛋白結合的Hcy在眼內高還原的環境下與白蛋白分離,再次游離.游離的Hcy被半胱氨酸膜轉運蛋白內化入晶狀體細胞[38],高濃度 Hcy可造成晶狀體細胞的嚴重損傷,其作用機制被認為與內質網應激相關.
研究認為,Hcy是一種引起白內障的內質網應激源.內質網應激是指由于內質網中鈣離子紊亂和蛋白質不能正常折疊導致細胞內質網內穩態失衡,生理功能發生紊亂的一種亞細胞器的病理過程.蛋白質的不正確折疊引發的內質網應激反應稱UPR,由3種內質網感應蛋白介導:肌醇需酶1(inositol requiring enzyme 1,IRE-1)、活化轉錄因子(activating transcription factor 6,ATF-6)和雙鏈RNA依賴的蛋白激酶樣ER激酶(PKR-like ER protein kinase,PERK).葡萄糖調節蛋白78(glucose-regulated protein78,GPR78)是內質網應激反應的標志性蛋白[39].細胞內抵御過量ROS損傷的最重要機制是由PERK依賴的轉錄激活因子(NF-E2-related factor 2,Nrf2)調控的[40-41].Nrf2調控許多抗氧化防御基因,包括 GR、谷胱甘肽-s-轉移酶、硫氧還蛋白、硫氧還蛋白還原酶及另外的抗氧化酶.年齡相關性白內障患者白內障晶狀體上皮細胞中IRE-1、ATF-6、PERK和GPR78水平明顯升高[42].Hcy誘導了內質網應激壓力,啟動了UPR,并導致晶狀體上皮細胞中ROS的產生,ROS降低了游離谷胱甘肽的數量,削弱了氧化防御系統,加劇了更加氧化的環境,導致晶狀體發生氧化損傷.另外,未折疊蛋白形成并發展為更大的聚合物使光散射增強,晶狀體透明度下降,形成白內障[31,42].在Hcy的作用下,晶狀體上皮細胞內的ROS明顯增多,并且GSH顯著減少.Yang等[42]研究發現在年齡相關性白內障患者白內障晶狀體上皮細胞中內質網感應蛋白IRE-1、ATF-6、PERK和GPR78水平明顯升高.高Hcy可以引起晶狀體上皮細胞內質網應激反應,使晶狀體上皮細胞內ROS明顯升高,抑制了Nrf2依賴的抗氧化保護防御系統,使Nrf2下游的過氧化氫酶、谷胱甘肽還原酶明顯降低[31].研究認為,Hcy加速了細胞老化進程[7,43],游離的Hcy能被半胱氨酸膜轉運蛋白內化入晶狀體細胞[44].隨著年齡的增長,Hcy在體內蓄積,導致晶狀體的氧化損傷與白內障的形成.
晶狀體蛋白質的修飾作用在年齡相關性白內障的發生中發揮了重要作用.賴氨酸殘基的Hcy化會引起蛋氨酸合成酶和胰蛋白酶的完全失活,導致蛋白質的損害,從而引起蛋白質功能受損[45].賴氨酸氧化酶是一種銅依賴的胺氧化酶,催化細胞外基質中共價交聯膠原蛋白和彈性蛋白的產生,這兩種蛋白質是細胞外基質維持結構完整性和穩定性所必需的.
青光眼是不可逆性致盲性眼病,其病理基礎是視網膜神經節細胞的凋亡.近期研究發現Hcy可通過激活NMDA受體導致視網膜神經節細胞的凋亡[46].與NMDA受體結合后,Hcy可以間接加強鈣離子的流入和氧化反應,從而激活細胞凋亡通路[47].在原發性開角型青光眼患者體內發現Hcy增加會導致視神經損傷[48].Moore等[49]發現在小鼠體內,Hcy可以導致視網膜神經節細胞的凋亡.有研究[50]報道,在老年男性和女性假性剝脫性青光眼患者中葉酸水平降低,Hcy水平增高.雖然Hcy水平和假性剝脫性青光眼發生呈正相關,但在印度老年青光眼患者中HHcy與葉酸和維生素 B12水平的相關性尚未建立.Turgut等[51]和Cumurcu等[52]研究發現血清維生素B12水平在患有假性剝脫性青光眼患者和其他類型的開角青光眼的患者中無統計學差異.
增殖性糖尿病性視網膜病變主要是細胞外機制重塑、新血管形成和基底膜改變.新生血管膜提示賴氨酸氧化酶的增加.在HHcy的影響下,視網膜蛋白質容易被Hcy化攻擊.除此之外,有研究認為同型半胱氨酸-硫代內脂比Hcy更具有趨炎屬性,會加重損傷[53].Hcy也可以直接損傷視網膜,特別是在神經節細胞層和玻璃體液中檢測到高水平的Hcy,表明Hcy可以直接損傷視網膜[54].血管內皮生長因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)在糖尿病性視網膜病變的發生中起重要作用.Lee等[55]和Saeed等[56]發現短期的HHcy誘發的氧化應激可以激活老鼠中的視網膜神經膠質細胞,并且可以增加視網膜VEGF的表達.Maeda等[57]用不同濃度的Hcy孵育人單核細胞,經過6、12、24 h孵育后檢測VEGF mRNA的表達水平,發現隨著Hcy濃度的升高和作用時間的延長,VEGF mRNA的表達顯著增強.研究[58]證明了其在糖尿病性視網膜病變的發生中起重要作用.
HHcy與多種眼部疾病有直接的關系.目前對于防治HHcy,醫學界進行了大量的實驗室及臨床研究,包括:基因治療和藥物治療.基因治療目前尚處于研究階段.藥物治療主要包含以下幾方面內容:①補充B族維生素,可以降低血中Hcy的含量;②補充甜菜堿,甜菜堿的有效成份為三甲基甘氨酸,具有甲基供體功能,可參與Hcy作為底物的蛋氨酸再生與循環;③N-乙酰半胱氨酸,能起到抗氧化,清除氧自由基作用.諸多臨床和實驗研究促進理論研究向臨床應用的轉化.對目標人群應定期檢測血漿Hcy、維生素B6、B12和葉酸的水平,及時篩選出被HHcy危及健康的患者,利于預防上述疾病的發生及控制疾病的進展.
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Hyperhomocysteinemia and oculopathy
ZHOU Hai-Yan1,YAN Hong2,3
1DepartmentofOphthalmology,ShaanxiProvincialPeople's Hospital,Xi'an 710068,China;2The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University,Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology,Chongqing Eye Institute,Chongqing 400016,China;3Department of Ophthalmology,Tangdu Hospital,Fourth Military Medical University,Xi'an 710038,China
Homocysteine(Hcy),a derived sulfur-containing and non-proteinogenic amino acid,which is formed in trace amount during the metabolism of essential amino acid,methionine.Elevated plasma Hcy levels have been associated with several tissue injuries including heart and neuronal degeneration.In addition,Hyperhomocysteinemia(HHcy)has been related to visual dysfunction.This article discusses the association between metabolic disorder of Hcy and ocular diseases and the possible pathological mechanisms.
hyperhomocysteinemia;cataract;glaucoma;diabetic retinopathy;visual impairment
R774.1;R589
A
2095-6894(2017)08-09-04
2017-05-15;接受日期:2017-06-01
國家自然科學基金青年基金項目(81600720);陜西省自然科學基金項目(2017JQ8012)
周海燕.博士,主治醫師.研究方向:白內障發病機制及防治.E-mail:zhy2006614@163.com
嚴 宏.主任醫師,教授,博導.研究方向:白內障發病機制及防治.E-mail:yhongb@fmmu.edu.cn