楊 卿,顏春松
·新進展·
急性呼吸窘迫綜合征異質(zhì)性的研究進展
楊 卿,顏春松*
急性呼吸窘迫綜合征是一種異質(zhì)性綜合征,在病因、發(fā)病機制、臨床表現(xiàn)、治療、預后等方面存在差異,根據(jù)這些差異可將其分為不同表型,以指導臨床治療和判斷預后。本文旨在對急性呼吸窘迫綜合征的異質(zhì)性及表型的研究進展進行綜述。
呼吸窘迫綜合征,成人;異質(zhì)性;表型
楊卿,顏春松.急性呼吸窘迫綜合征異質(zhì)性的研究進展[J].中國全科醫(yī)學,2017,20(13):1648-1653.[www.chinagp.net]
YANG Q,YAN C S.Research progress on heterogeneity of acute respiratory distress syndrome[J].Chinese General Practice,2017,20(13):1648-1653.
1967年ASHBAUGH等[1]首次觀察到在272例接受呼吸支持的成年患者中有12例患者對常規(guī)治療無效,其均出現(xiàn)一種呼吸窘迫綜合征,臨床表現(xiàn)為呼吸困難、呼吸急促、發(fā)紺,且對氧療無效,肺順應性下降,胸部X線片提示彌漫性肺泡滲出。這種呼吸窘迫綜合征的臨床表現(xiàn)、生理及病理進程均與新生兒呼吸窘迫綜合征(透明膜病)極其相似,且均在原發(fā)病后1~96 h出現(xiàn),故將其稱為成人急性呼吸窘迫(acute respiratory distress in adults)。1971年PETTY等[2]將這種呼吸窘迫綜合征命名為成人呼吸窘迫綜合征(adult respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS)。1985年ARDS的病死率仍高達60%以上[3],為明確其定義、更好地理解其發(fā)病機制并評估治療,1988年MURRAY等[4]提出了肺損傷評分,但之后ARDS的病死率仍為10%~90%,波動較大。1994年美歐聯(lián)席會議(AECC)提出了急性肺損傷(ALI)/ARDS的定義和診斷標準,并將成人呼吸窘迫綜合征更名為急性呼吸窘迫綜合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS),指出ALI是一種炎性反應和肺通透性增高的綜合征,這種通透性增高不能用左心房和/或肺毛細血管高壓解釋,而ARDS是ALI的嚴重階段[5]。同時,該會議認為ARDS的異質(zhì)性也是影響患者預后的因素之一[5]。但廣泛應用結果顯示,與彌漫性肺泡損傷的尸檢病理結果相比,AECC的診斷標準僅有中等靈敏度和特異度[6],且診斷準確性也并不高[7-8]。因此,2011年在歐洲重癥醫(yī)學學會的倡議下,美國胸科學會和重癥醫(yī)學學會共同參與修訂了新的診斷標準——ARDS柏林標準[9]。雖然ARDS的診斷和治療取得了長足進展,但其死亡率仍高達38.1%~42.1%,尤其是重度ARDS的院內(nèi)病死率高達41.9%~50.4%[10]。重要原因之一就是其病因、發(fā)病機制錯綜復雜,臨床表現(xiàn)、治療、預后等諸多方面存在差異,具有異質(zhì)性。根據(jù)ARDS的異質(zhì)性可將其分為不同表型,本文旨在對其異質(zhì)性及表型的研究進展進行綜述,以期為更好地理解ARDS的發(fā)病機制、提高臨床治療水平提供新思路。
1998年GATTINONI等[11]發(fā)現(xiàn),肺部感染與腹部疾病導致的ARDS病理改變和對呼氣末正壓通氣(PEEP)的治療反應并不相同,并根據(jù)這一現(xiàn)象將ARDS分為由肺部疾病所致的肺內(nèi)源性ARDS(primarily from pulmonary diseases,ARDSp)和肺外疾病所致的肺外源性ARDS(primarily from extra-pulmonary diseases,ARDSexp)。進一步的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),ARDSp和ARDSexp在發(fā)病機制、病理及臨床表現(xiàn)等方面存在一定差異。
1.1 病理表現(xiàn) ARDSexp的內(nèi)皮損傷可能更明顯,而肺上皮細胞相對完整,透明膜較薄且均勻連續(xù)分布[12];ARDSp的上皮損傷、肺泡塌陷、纖維蛋白沉積較明顯[13],透明膜較厚且易中斷[12]。ARDS動物模型也提示,ARDSp造成肺上皮細胞層破壞、透明膜形成及中性粒細胞凋亡,ARDSexp則以肺間質(zhì)水腫為主、肺泡腔結構相對完整[14];ARDSp肺泡內(nèi)膠原蛋白持續(xù)增加可達8周,但ARDSexp膠原蛋白沉積可被迅速逆轉[15]。這可能是PEEP對ARDSp的治療效果不如ARDSexp的病理基礎。
1.2 影像學表現(xiàn) 在胸部影像學表現(xiàn)上,二者間也存在差異。胸部CT檢查提示,ARDSp的磨玻璃影與肺實變范圍相當,且肺實變不對稱;ARDSexp的雙肺磨玻璃影較肺實變更加明顯,且磨玻璃影對稱,多分布在近肺門的中央?yún)^(qū)[16]。二者普遍存在胸腔積液、支氣管充氣征。但DESAI等[17]指出,雖然二者的CT表現(xiàn)存在差異,但在某些情況下對ARDSp胸部CT檢查的識別主要基于其表現(xiàn)是否典型,而不是基于某個影像學特征。
1.3 呼吸力學及治療反應 二者在呼吸力學及治療反應方面也存在差異。GATTINONI等[11]通過研究發(fā)現(xiàn),ARDSp患者肺彈性阻力升高,并隨PEEP的增加而增加;而ARDSexp患者肺和胸壁彈性阻力均升高,并隨PEEP的增加而減小。LIM等[18]和PELOSI等[19]的研究結果表明,PEEP對ARDSexp的治療效果優(yōu)于ARDSp,推測二者對PEEP的不同反應可能是因為ARDSexp主要表現(xiàn)為肺泡萎陷(肺泡易于復張),而ARDSp則主要表現(xiàn)為肺實變(肺泡不易于復張)。LIM等[18]在對47例ARDS患者(31例ARDSp、16例ARDSexp)采用俯臥位通氣方式治療時,發(fā)現(xiàn)ARDSexp患者的氧合指數(shù)和胸部X線片的改善明顯優(yōu)于ARDSp患者,這與PELOSI等[19]的研究結果一致。導致二者差異的原因可能為:ARDSexp的主要改變是肺萎陷和不張導致的低氧血癥,俯臥位通氣有助于肺內(nèi)通氣的重新分布和局部經(jīng)肺壓的改變,這均會對改善氧合指數(shù)起到迅速而積極的作用;ARDSp以肺實變?yōu)橹鳎┡P位通氣對肺內(nèi)氣體重新分布所起的作用較小[20]。
1.4 患者死亡率 多項研究結果顯示,ARDSp的死亡率高于ARDSexp[21-23]。但2008年一項納入了34個研究共4 311例ARDS患者的meta分析結果顯示,二者病死率間無差異,這可能是因為分析過程中將各研究間的異質(zhì)性及諸多重要研究均排除在外所致[24]。
1.5 生物標志物 二者的生物學標志物可能也存在差異。CALFEE等[25]的研究結果顯示,ARDSp患者的血漿肺上皮細胞損傷標志物肺表面活性物質(zhì)相關蛋白-D(SP-D)的水平明顯高于ARDSexp患者,而內(nèi)皮細胞損傷標志物血管生成素-2(Ang-2)、血管性血友病因子(vWF)抗原和炎性標志物白介素6(IL-6)、白介素8(IL-8)明顯低于ARDSexp患者。提示ARDSp早期可能以肺泡上皮細胞損傷為主,而ARDSexp早期可能以血管內(nèi)皮細胞損傷為主。這可能為ARDS的治療提供了新思路,如ARDSexp早期可以保護毛細血管內(nèi)皮細胞為主,血管生成素-1(Ang-1)的變異體(MAT.Ang-1)、酪氨酸激酶受體2(Tie-2)的激動劑、1-磷脂-鞘氨醇及其類似物等可減輕毛細血管滲漏,保護內(nèi)皮屏障[26-29];而ARDSp早期可以保護肺泡上皮細胞為主,研究表明18∶1/18∶1二油酰磷脂酰甘油和角化細胞生長因子可保護肺泡上皮細胞,減輕肺損傷的肺水腫表現(xiàn)[30-31]。
1.6 遺傳學表現(xiàn) 另外,ARDSp和ARDSexp的發(fā)生與遺傳學也存在一定關系。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),單核苷酸多態(tài)性rs1190286(POPDC3基因)、腫瘤壞死因子的-308A等位基因可能會降低肺部疾病發(fā)展成為ARDS的風險[32];腫瘤壞死因子的TNFB22等位基因可能降低肺外疾病發(fā)展成為ARDS的風險[33],而單核苷酸多態(tài)性rs324420 (FAAT基因)可能增加肺外疾病發(fā)展成為ARDS的風險[32]。
2007年CALFEE等[34]納入了2個臨床試驗研究共1 451例ARDS患者,根據(jù)ARDS的病因?qū)⑵浞譃閯?chuàng)傷相關性ARDS(主要病因為創(chuàng)傷)與非創(chuàng)傷相關性ARDS(主要病因為非創(chuàng)傷)兩組,結果顯示創(chuàng)傷相關性ARDS患者更加年輕、急慢性疾病更少,血漿中反映肺上皮細胞和內(nèi)皮細胞損傷的標志物可溶性細胞黏附分子-1(sICAM-1)、vWF、SP-D、可溶性腫瘤壞死因子受體-1(TNFr-1)水平更低,90 d死亡率更低,與之前諸多研究結果相同[35-40]。該研究還顯示,創(chuàng)傷相關性ARDS患者的死亡率低,并不足以用其基礎臨床差異來解釋,可能由其肺上皮、內(nèi)皮細胞損傷較輕引起。近年來人們對創(chuàng)傷后發(fā)生ARDS的危險因素進行了深入研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)PPFIA1基因[41]、血清低水平的內(nèi)皮細胞特異分子-1[42]、主動與被動吸煙[43]等與創(chuàng)傷相關性ARDS發(fā)生有一定關系。
REILLY等[44]進一步對創(chuàng)傷相關性ARDS進行了潛類別分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)早發(fā)型ARDS(創(chuàng)傷后48 h內(nèi)發(fā)生)患者與晚發(fā)型ARDS(創(chuàng)傷后48 h后發(fā)生)患者相比,胸部創(chuàng)傷更嚴重、入住重癥監(jiān)護室(ICU)前最低收縮壓更低,且早發(fā)型ARDS患者血漿Ang-2、可溶性晚期糖基化終末產(chǎn)物受體(sRAGE)水平較晚發(fā)型高,提示早發(fā)型ARDS患者肺泡-毛細血管屏障的損傷可能更嚴重[45-46],但兩類患者的院內(nèi)病死率并無差異。這種早發(fā)型ARDS患者更適于以糖基化終末產(chǎn)物受體(RAGE)和Ang-2為靶點的治療方案。RAGE是一種多配體受體,屬于細胞表面分子免疫球蛋白超家族,其能與多種配體(如晚期糖基化產(chǎn)物、淀粉樣肽、高遷移率族蛋白)結合,參與炎性反應和固有免疫反應。既往研究結果顯示,阻斷RAGE軸可以減輕炎性反應程度,提高膿毒癥小鼠的生存率[47]。Ang-2是一種內(nèi)皮細胞生長因子,主要表達于血管內(nèi)皮細胞,可識別Tie-2。靜息狀態(tài)下血管內(nèi)皮細胞的Ang-2表達量較少,當內(nèi)皮細胞活化時其表達上調(diào),拮抗Ang-1與Tie-2結合所致的穩(wěn)定內(nèi)皮細胞的作用,導致內(nèi)皮細胞凋亡和血管滲漏。研究表明,以核酸適體或封閉抗體抑制Ang-2,阻斷其與Tie-2結合,可發(fā)揮抗感染效應、減輕血管滲漏[48],這同樣為ARDS的臨床治療提供了新思路。
2010年SHEU等[49]納入2 786例可能發(fā)展為ARDS的患者,其中736例最終發(fā)生了ARDS,將由膿毒癥引起的ARDS歸為膿毒癥相關性ARDS(524例),將由非膿毒癥損傷(如創(chuàng)傷、誤吸、多次輸血)造成的ARDS歸為非膿毒癥相關性ARDS(62例),將同時有膿毒癥及創(chuàng)傷、誤吸、多次輸血等危險因素的患者排除在外。該研究發(fā)現(xiàn),膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者的病情更加嚴重、肺損傷恢復更差、成功拔管率更低、60 d病死率更高。分析其原因,膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者的血漿降鈣素原(PCT)、vWF抗原、sICAM-1、可溶性E選擇素水平較非膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者更高,提示前者的急性炎性反應、內(nèi)皮細胞活性、凝血激活程度更高。
循環(huán)內(nèi)皮細胞是內(nèi)皮細胞破壞的標志物[50-51]。MOUSSA等[52]的研究結果顯示,中重度膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者循環(huán)內(nèi)皮細胞(CEC)計數(shù)高于輕度膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者,死亡患者的CEC計數(shù)高于存活者,提示內(nèi)皮細胞破壞在膿毒癥相關性ARDS的發(fā)病中可能起重要作用,可能是其嚴重程度的標志物。A型血[53]、中性粒細胞相關基因的過表達[54]可能是膿毒癥相關性ARDS發(fā)生的危險因素。既往研究結果表明,骨髓間充質(zhì)干細胞可發(fā)揮抗感染和抗凋亡效應、調(diào)節(jié)上皮細胞和內(nèi)皮細胞通透性、改善肺水清除等,進而減輕膿毒癥和ARDS中的肺損傷,增強肺修復[55]。
3-羥基-3-甲基戊二酸單酰輔酶A(HMG-CoA)還原酶抑制劑(他汀類)藥物除抗感染、免疫調(diào)節(jié)、抗氧化等作用外,還具有促進內(nèi)皮細胞骨架重排、減輕氧化應激等作用。動物實驗證實,他汀類藥物可減輕呼吸機相關性肺損傷和內(nèi)毒素所致的肺損傷中的血管滲漏[56-57]。雖然也有研究結果顯示,瑞舒伐他汀對膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者的60 d院內(nèi)生存率、機械通氣時間無明顯改善[58]。但MANSUR等[59]進一步將膿毒癥相關性ARDS的嚴重程度進行分級,發(fā)現(xiàn)在白種人中辛伐他汀預處理及連續(xù)治療可以改善重度膿毒癥相關性ARDS患者的28 d生存率,對預后有益。
2014年CALFEE等[60]納入2個相互獨立的隨機對照試驗(ARMA研究的473例和ALVEOLI研究的549例ARDS患者),潛類別分析提示,將ARDS分為非超炎型、超炎型2個亞型為最優(yōu)擬合。超炎型ARDS為具有相對高血漿水平的IL-6、IL-8、TNFr-1、纖溶酶原激活物抑制因子-1(PAI-1)及相對較快的心率和較大1 min通氣量,相對低的收縮壓、碳酸氫根離子及C反應蛋白水平的ARDS。非超炎型ARDS為具有相對低血漿水平的IL-6、IL-8、TNFr-1、PAI-1及相對較慢的心率和較小的1 min通氣量,相對高的收縮壓、碳酸氫根離子及C反應蛋白水平的ARDS。超炎型患者與非超炎型相比其血漿炎性反應標志物水平更高、升壓藥使用更加普遍、血清碳酸氫鹽水平更低、膿毒血癥患病率更高。超炎型患者與非超炎型相比臨床結局更差,病死率更高、自主呼吸天數(shù)和無器官衰竭天數(shù)更少。
在ALVEOLI研究中,PEEP對兩種類型ARDS患者的90 d病死率、自主呼吸天數(shù)及無器官衰竭天數(shù)有不同的影響。該研究提示,超炎型ARDS型患者炎性反應、休克、代謝性酸中毒更加嚴重,且臨床結局更差;兩種類型ARDS患者對PEEP的反應也不同,超炎型患者運用高PEEP與低PEEP相比可降低病死率,而非超炎型患者運用高PEEP的病死率更高。一項納入了3個隨機對照試驗的meta分析結果顯示,氧合指數(shù)≤200 mm Hg(1 mm Hg=0.133 kPa)的ARDS患者運用較高PEEP與低PEEP相比可使病死率降低5%,而氧合指數(shù)>200 mm Hg的ARDS患者運用高PEEP卻使病死率升高[61]。CALFEE等[60]的ARDS分型對PEEP反應的差異較氧合指數(shù)對PEEP反應的差異更加明顯,提示其分型可能比單純以氧合指數(shù)進行分型對指導臨床治療的意義更大。同時,CALFEE等[60]的研究也存在一定不足,包括:其采用的是傳統(tǒng)的ARDS預后標志物,如應用基因或代謝標志物可能有利于更全面的分型;研究無法將酗酒[62]、吸煙[43]、肥胖[63]等可能變量納入分析,這均有待后續(xù)研究的完善。
MROZEK等[64]根據(jù)胸部CT表現(xiàn)將119例ARDS患者分為局灶型和非局灶型。局灶型指胸部CT提示肺密度增加呈葉段分布,非局灶型指肺密度增加呈彌漫性分布。當患者病情不允許行胸部CT檢查時,以胸部正位片或肺部超聲檢查代替,肺密度增加區(qū)域主要位于肺下葉時將患者納入局灶型組,當肺密度增加區(qū)域在肺上葉及下葉均勻分布時將患者納入非局灶型組。最終局灶型組納入了32例(26.9%)ARDS患者,非局灶型組納入了87例(73.1%)ARDS患者。非局灶型組中位血漿sRAGE水平為3 074(1 930,4 404)μg/L,明顯高于局灶型組的877(494,1 049)μg/L。采用血漿sRAGE水平區(qū)分局灶型和非局灶型ARDS,受試者工作特征(ROC)曲線下面積為0.93,當最佳截斷值為1 188 μg/L時,靈敏度為93%,特異度為84%。多因素分析,結果顯示ARDS患者的血漿sRAGE水平對胸部CT表型、簡化急性生理狀態(tài)評分系統(tǒng)(SAPS)Ⅱ評分、平臺壓有影響。非局灶型ARDS患者28 d及90 d病死率均高于局灶型組;對ARDS死亡危險因素進行多因素分析,結果顯示只有血漿sRAGE水平、SAPSⅡ評分是ARDS患者死亡的獨立危險因素。血漿sRAGE水平作為ARDS中反映Ⅰ型肺泡上皮細胞損傷和肺泡液體清除率的標志物[65-67],該結果也提示非局灶型ARDS肺泡液體清除率受損較局灶型ARDS更嚴重,且血漿sRAGE水平可作為基于胸部CT表現(xiàn)的ARDS分型。CONSTANTIN等[68]的研究結果表明,肺復張策略可改善彌漫性肺通氣減低的ARDS患者的動脈血氧分壓,卻無法改善局灶性通氣減低的ARDS患者的動脈血氧分壓。由于局灶型ARDS和非局灶型ARDS的病死率及對機械通氣的反應可能存在不同,對于局灶型和非局灶型ARDS患者機械通氣方案個體化的研究也正在進行中。
綜上所述,不同表型的ARDS在發(fā)病機制、臨床表現(xiàn)、治療方案、預后等諸多方面存在差異,但目前尚無一種完美的分型方法可以指導ARDS的臨床治療,仍需要大量的基礎及臨床研究。
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(本文編輯:王鳳微)
Research Progress on Heterogeneity of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
YANGQing,YANChun-song*
RespiratoryMedicineDepartment,theSecondAffiliatedHospitalofNanchangUniversity,Nanchang330006,China
*Correspondingauthor:YANChun-song,Professor,Mastersupervisor;E-mail:ycs65@126.com
Acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS) is a heterogeneous syndrome that differs in different cases in terms of etiology,pathogenesis,clinical manifestations,treatment regimen,prognosis and other aspects.And based on these differences,we can classify ARDS into different phenotypes in order to guide clinical therapy and judge prognosis.This article reviewed the recent developments in heterogeneity and phenotypes of ARDS.
Respiratory distress syndrome,adult;Heterogeneity;Phenotype
R 563.8
A
10.3969/j.issn.1007-9572.2017.13.023
2016-11-03;
2017-01-24)
330006 江西省南昌市,南昌大學第二附屬醫(yī)院呼吸內(nèi)科
*通信作者:顏春松,教授,碩士生導師;
E-mail:ycs65@126.com