李斌,張建軍,段文元,王同建,金訊波
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·綜述·
重復腎盂輸尿管畸形致病因素研究進展
李斌,張建軍,段文元,王同建,金訊波△
重復腎盂輸尿管畸形屬于先天性腎臟和尿道畸形(CAKUT)范疇內的一種疾病,發病率約0.07%。其表現形式不一,可與其他器官畸形同時發生,可能合并尿道下裂、隱睪、輸精管缺如、睪丸和陰莖發育不全等男性生殖系統癥狀。可終生無明顯自覺癥狀,亦可因繼發性積水、結石等逐漸對患側腎功能造成不可逆損害。該病的家族發病現象在CAKUT中居前列,因其在遺傳學上具有不完全外顯性,為遺傳學研究帶來一定困難,其發病機制尚不完全明確,但不少研究證明該病的發病與基因突變、拷貝數變異及環境等多因素有關。在患者中檢測到的部分致病因素已在動物模型中得到驗證,同時也有致病基因僅在患者或動物模型中發現。綜述近年來重復腎盂輸尿管畸形致病因素的研究進展。
腎盂;輸尿管;基因;變異(遺傳學);環境
【Abstract】The duplex collecting system,amalformation of duplex renal pelvis and ureter,is a disease of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract(CAKUT).Themorbidity of this disease is about0.07%.There is a broad spectrum of forms,or it may accompany with many anomalies of other organs,such as hypospadia,cryptorchidism,vas deferens absence,and hypoplasia of testis and penis.Some of patientsmay feel no discom fort all through their life,meanwhile others may get irreversible impairment of renal function due to secondary hydronephrosis and calculi.The family history of the duplex collecting system is the most frequent within all CAKUT.Owing to its incomplete penetrance and the undefined pathogenesis,the genetic research of this disease is a challenge.It was found that this disease is related to gene mutations,copy number variants,and interaction between heredity and environmentand some other factors.Some pathogenic factors found in human have also been confirmed in animalmodels,while others could be found either in animalmodels or human.We herein reviewed the research progress of the pathogenic factors of duplex collecting system.
【Keywords】Kidney pelvis;Ureter;Genes;Variation(genetics);Environment
(JIntReprod Health/Fam Plan,2016,35:339-343)
基金項目:國家重點基礎研究發展計劃(2013CB945402)
作者單位:250022濟南軍區總醫院心血管病研究所(李斌,段文元,王同建);山東大學附屬山東省立醫院泌尿微創中心(李斌,張建軍,金訊波)
通信作者:段文元,E-mail:dwy2115@126.com;王同建,E-mail:wang tongjian0425@126.com
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審校者
重復腎盂輸尿管畸形是先天性腎臟和尿道畸形(congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract,CAKUT)范疇內的一種疾病,指單側或雙側腎臟存在兩個相對獨立的腎盂結構,并常有兩條輸尿管發出于腎臟,發病率約0.07%,在CAKUT中的發病率僅低于先天性腎盂輸尿管連接部梗阻(ureteropelvic junction obstruction,UPJO)[1]。該病因發病部位、輸尿管數目、融合與否及融合位置、注入膀胱與否及開口位置、是否伴發膀胱輸尿管反流、輸尿管末端囊腫等不同而臨床表現各異,可單獨發生,也可與其他器官異常以綜合征的形式出現[1]。
CAKUT是兒科腎功能損害的最常見原因,在美國占兒科終末期腎功能衰竭病因的31%[2]。研究其發病風險因素及防治策略非常必要。現從基因突變、拷貝數變異(copy number variants,CNVs)、環境因素等方面對近年來重復腎盂輸尿管畸形的風險因素進行系統綜述。
1.1L1CAM L1CAM定位于Xq28,編碼細胞黏附分子L1。L1作為配體或配體的受體參與細胞外的相互作用和細胞內的信號轉導,最早被發現表達于神經元及上皮細胞,作用于神經元的生成和細胞遷移、促進軸突生長和髓鞘化。其突變早先被證實可引發胼胝體發育不全、腦積水、痙攣性截癱、拇指內收、精神發育遲滯等神經發育異常。Debiec等[3]發現L1CAM在腎的發育尤其是遠曲小管和集合管的發育過程中起重要作用,并于1998年報道后進一步通過敲除L1CAM基因,建立了重復腎盂輸尿管畸形的小鼠模型,重復輸尿管可分別開口于膀胱,亦可融合后進入膀胱,同時部分小鼠出現包括腎髓質發育異常在內的其他多種腎臟先天畸形。Liebau等[4]于2007年報道了1例L1CAM致雙側重復腎盂輸尿管、右側巨輸尿管并膀胱輸尿管反流伴發腦積水、胼胝體發育不全的患兒,突變為L1CAM基因18號內含子剪切序列2 bp的堿基缺失(c.2431+2delTG),證實L1CAM可導致人腎臟發育異常。該研究認為L1CAM突變可導致包括腎盂輸尿管重復在內的多種腎臟畸形,建議將之作為腎臟和尿路畸形的候選基因。
1.2Wnt5a Wnt5a在全身多器官、組織中表達,在輸尿管芽中也有表達[5]。2014年Huang等[6]以其為靶點,建立了斑馬魚和小鼠的基因敲除模型,基因敲除斑馬魚患腎囊腫和腎小管擴張,基因敲除小鼠出現包括重復腎盂輸尿管在內的多種腎臟畸形。然而,該基因發生突變導致人重復腎盂輸尿管畸形至今仍未見大樣本有說服力的報道。
1.3Foxc1、Foxc2屬于叉頭框基因家族,編碼叉頭框轉錄因子。2000年Kume等[7]發現Foxc1純合突變導致小鼠胚胎后腎發育異常,可出現重復腎輸尿管畸形等多種表型。Foxc1、Foxc2同時發生雜合突變常導致心血管系統畸形和腎臟發育不良,而單純Foxc1 或Foxc2雜合突變不能致病。2003年Nakano等[8]在7例CAKUT患者中檢測到3例患者存在Foxc1插入突變。說明這2個基因存在致病潛能。
1.4FGFR2 Zhao等[9]于2004年描述了FGFR1與FGFR2在小鼠輸尿管芽發育過程中的作用,FGFR2突變引起輸尿管芽異常分支,且引起腎體積縮小、形態異常。Bates[10]肯定了前人相關研究的成果,并進一步確認FGFR2異常可引起包括膀胱輸尿管反流在內的多種先天性泌尿系畸形。
1.5FMN1 Dimitrov等[11]2010年首次報道在1例少指畸形、聽力缺損、腎發育缺陷的患者中檢測到FMN1突變。Nicolaou等[12]在453例CAKUT患者篩查中檢測到3例重復腎盂輸尿管畸形患者存在FMN1終止或錯義突變,認為FMN1是一種少見的可引發重復腎盂輸尿管畸形的基因。
1.6SIX1包括重復腎盂輸尿管畸形在內的多種泌尿系畸形可以作為腮耳腎綜合征(branchio-oto-renal syndrome,常染色體顯性遺傳)中泌尿系統癥狀的形式出現。Ruf等[13]2004年報道SIX1突變可導致人腮耳腎綜合征。Ou等[14]2008年發現1例發育遲緩伴多發畸形,癥狀類似于腮耳腎綜合征及小兒眼耳脊椎綜合征(oculoauriculovertebral spectrum)的患者存在SIX1和SIX6擴增。Negrisolo等[15]證實SIX1缺陷小鼠也可出現腎積水、輸尿管積水、腎發育不良等泌尿系癥狀。
1.7EYA1 Kalatzis等[16]1998年報道EYA1可導致人腮耳腎綜合征,其在腎臟的表達與泌尿及集合系統異常密切相關。隨后Johnson等[17]在EYA1第7內含子插入IAP形成突變,成功誘導出腮耳腎綜合征小鼠模型。Ruf等[13]認為SIX1引發泌尿系畸形的機制在于突變破壞了EYA1-SIX1-DNA復合體的穩定性,EYA1在該復合體中作用亦不可或缺,其突變破壞復合體穩定。Morisada等[18]也曾報道EYA1的部分缺失致腮耳腎綜合征,出現腮耳腎等多器官發育不良癥狀。
1.8PAX2 Pax2和Emx2同位于染色體10q區域。Boualia等[19]2011年提出Pax2能調控Emx2的表達,二者同時突變可引起人重復腎盂輸尿管畸形,而且Pax2突變致病的患者往往伴發膀胱輸尿管反流。Paces-Fessy等[20]2012年建立Pax2和Hnf1b共突變的動物模型,觀察到明顯的腎發育不良、重復腎盂輸尿管、先天性巨輸尿管和腎積水等典型CAKUT癥狀。Weber等[21]的研究也有類似發現。同時,Pax2變異還可以常染色體顯性遺傳模式引發腎缺損綜合征(renal coloboma syndrome,RCS)[22],表現為腎發育異常、視神經缺損、視網膜和視盤發育不良。
1.9GATA3 Grote等[23]報道GATA3的失活會導致胎兒腎發育過程中細胞過早分化及受體酪氨酸激酶(RET)受體基因表達缺失,進一步導致異位輸尿管芽的生成,最終出現腎發育不良、重復腎盂輸尿管、輸尿管積水、輸精管增生、子宮發育不全等一系列癥狀。Zhu等[24]、Ferraris等[25]都曾報道過GATA3導致甲狀旁腺功能減退-感音神經性耳聾-腎發育不良(HDR)綜合征,說明GATA3除了在腎臟發育中起作用之外,在聽力系統、甲狀旁腺都有調控作用。
1.10WT1 WT1作為抑癌基因/原癌基因早被證實與Wilms腫瘤及神經母細胞瘤、乳腺癌等腫瘤發病相關,而且在白血病病程中也處于高表達狀態,近年來發現其在胎兒肝腎等多器官發育中都有調控作用[26]。Tatsumi等[27]發現作用于WT1的miR-125a失活能導致小鼠髓系惡性腫瘤及泌尿生殖畸形。Loo等[28]發現WT1致支氣管閉鎖、肺發育障礙及腎臟異常,隨后又報道在檢測7例先天性雙側腎缺如并發心臟缺損的患兒胚胎后發現6例肝臟中WT1表達異常。Zirn等[29]也曾報道一個WT1引發慢性腎病及重復輸尿管畸形的家系。說明WT1突變確實是泌尿系畸形的相關基因。
1.11GDNF/RET GDNF/RET信號通路在腎臟發育尤其是輸尿管芽和集合系統的發育中起重要作用。1996年Pichel等[30]及Moore等[31]都發現敲除GDNF基因后小鼠出現腎缺如及腎、輸尿管發育不全。Chatterjee等[32]對122例CAKUT患者進行GDNF、RET、SPRY1(RET的抑制基因)測序,發現6例無血緣關系的患者存在GDNF或RET基因變異,而且在一個重復腎盂輸尿管的患者家系中發現了一個新的RET的突變位點RET-R831Q。在1例存在腎發育不全、巨輸尿管和隱睪的患者檢測到其既有RET-G691S多態位點及RET-R982C突變,還同時存在GFRα1(RET的輔助受體基因)突變GFRα1-G443D。他們的研究發現5%的CAKUT患者存在GDNF-GFRα1-RET信號通路的有害突變。
此外,Fgfrl1[33]、DSTYK[34]、TRAP1[35]、UPK3A[36]、AGTR1[12]、SEMA3A[37]、ADFs/cofilin[38]等多個基因也有報道參與輸尿管芽發育等過程而與重復腎盂輸尿管或CAKUT相關,但因病例數不多或僅限得到動物實驗的證實,此處不再詳述。
CNVs是染色體重排的一種表現形式,包括缺失和擴增兩種形式,可致多種先天性疾病,尤其是多器官發育異常、智力障礙等多種癥狀合并發生時應警惕存在拷貝數變異的可能。
Smith等[39]早在1992年就曾報道過1例46,XY,dic t(X;21)(p11.1;p11.1)易位導致肢體不對稱、重復腎盂輸尿管、膈肌發育不良的病例。Weber等[21]在30例綜合征性CAKUT(CAKUT同時伴發至少一種腎外癥狀)患者中篩查出3例患者存在染色體擴增/缺失,其中1例重復腎、膀胱輸尿管反流并發紅斑的患者存在t(2;7)不平衡易位,其未患病母親檢測到t(2;7)平衡易位。Westland等[40]篩查80例CAKUT患者發現了包括已知及新發在內的共13個CNV,其中5個新發CNV所在基因被證實在泌尿系統特異性表達,由此進一步提出DLG1和KIF12是人類CAKUT易感基因。筆者認為在腎、輸尿管發育過程中起調控作用的基因或調控基因等隨染色體重排易位或發生擴增缺失,導致其表達及功能發生變化,都可能進一步導致腎、輸尿管發育的異常。
表觀遺傳學修飾(包括甲基化/去甲基化、組蛋白乙酰化、組蛋白磷酸化等)異常也可致病。Jin等[41]報道對1例患左側腎缺如而其同卵雙胞胎卻表觀正常的兩人行全外顯子組檢測及CNV檢測均無不同,而甲基化篩查發現兩人存在514個區域的甲基化不同。而且,泌尿系統畸形的發生可能與發育時所處的宮內理化因素及母親健康狀況有關。Hsu等[42]以1 944例先天性腎發育不良或腎缺如、梗阻性腎病患者為對象進行研究,發現其發病與母親糖尿病、肥胖、種族有關。Jurkiewicz等[43]曾報道切爾諾貝利核泄漏之后出現了1例左側5倍重復腎盂輸尿管結構的患兒,說明放射線對重復腎盂輸尿管畸形也可能存在致病潛能。
綜上,對于CAKUT的致病原因,目前的研究半數以上是囊括全部CAKUT疾病譜加以探索,而單獨將腎缺如、先天性巨輸尿管、腎發育不良、膀胱輸尿管反流、囊性腎病、后尿道瓣膜、重復腎盂輸尿管畸形等作為獨立病種進行研究的相對少見,為具體病種的致病基因研究及文獻分析帶來了一定的困難。
各基因在CAKUT中的致病傾向性也有所不同。一方面,部分CAKUT的致病/易感基因在以往研究中表現出針對某種畸形的傾向性。如HNF1B、BICC1主要引起囊性腎病,ITGA8、FRAS1致病多傾向于腎缺如,ROBO2、GREM1、FGF多致膀胱輸尿管反流,UMOD引發腎發育不全、腎萎縮,LGR4致腎融合等。另一方面,半數以上基因發生變異又可導致多種泌尿系統畸形,如DACH1可致腎發育不良、腎發育不全、巨輸尿管、膀胱輸尿管反流等多種表現[44]。推測這種現象的出現與基因在胚胎腎發育過程中的作用節點及其與其他基因的綜合作用有關。
同時,有些基因在泌尿系之外的組織也有表達,使基因致病有時以綜合征的形式表現:FREM1突變可導致鼻裂,伴發/不伴發腎臟和肛直腸管畸形;SALL1突變可導致Townes-Brocks綜合征,出現無肛、拇指多指、縱裂、耳發育畸形、腎發育不良、尿道下裂、隱睪;FGF8引發低促性腺激素性功能減退癥,出現喉結小、陰毛和腋毛缺如、骨齡落后、嗅覺缺失或嗅覺減退、男子乳腺增生、小陰莖、隱睪和輸精管缺如、軀體或器官異常、腎發育不全或畸形先天性心血管病、肥胖等癥狀[45];SIX1、EYA1[46]突變致腮耳腎綜合征,出現鰓裂瘺管和囊腫、耳發育不良、聽力損害、腎臟發育不全或先天萎縮、腎重吸收異常、腎缺如、輸尿管反流、重復腎盂輸尿管畸形等。甚至多種基因在腫瘤的發生、免疫也發揮重要作用。
隨著基因組學的發展及對各種疾病的致病基因/易感基因的不斷研究,部分研究成果如多囊腎、Prade-Willi綜合征、Williams綜合征、貓眼綜合征、肺癌靶基因篩查等多種基因檢測已切實進入臨床應用階段,為診斷、治療和產前篩查提供巨大幫助。對于多發先天性畸形、發育異常、智力低下的患者行基因和染色體篩查往往能有所助益。
包括重復腎盂輸尿管畸形在內的泌尿系統先天畸形是多因素致病,CAKUT發病率居新生兒畸形的首位,而相關基因的多樣性、表達產物相互作用的復雜性及CAKUT本身的不完全外顯率為遺傳學研究增加了很大難度。對于重復腎盂輸尿管畸形,能用已知的基因突變或CNV等因素合理解釋的不足30%。因此,研究基因突變、CNV、環境等多方面因素在重復腎盂輸尿管畸形乃至CAKUT疾病譜發病過程中起的作用,并進一步建立系統的風險評估方法對于疾病預防意義重大。
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[本文編輯王昕]
Research Progress on Pathogenic Factors of Duplex Collecting System
L
I Bin,ZHANG Jian-jun,DUAN Wen-yuan,WANG Tong-jian,JIN Xun-bo.Cardiovascular Disease Institute,Jinan Military General Hospital,Jinan 250022,China(LIBin,DUANWen-yuan);Department of Minimally Invasive Urology Center,Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University,Jinan 250021,China(LIBin,ZHANG Jian-jun,JIN Xun-bo)
DUANWen-yuan,E-mail:dwy2115@126.com;WANGTong-jian,E-mail:wangtongjian0425@ 126.com
(2016-02-20)