趙博,王佳偉
缺血性卒中是世界范圍內致死和致殘的主要原因之一[1],免疫因素及炎癥反應在缺血性卒中的病理生理過程中起重要作用[2]。卒中介導損傷可能對免疫系統產生影響,反之,免疫和炎癥也參與急性腦損傷和康復[3-4]。炎癥因子[如損傷相關模式分子(damage-associated molecular patterns,DAMPs)、C-反應蛋白(C-reaction protein,CRP)、白細胞介素(interleukin,IL)-1、IL-6、腫瘤壞死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)、干擾素(interferon,IFN)等]和細胞信號通路(如CD3+T細胞、CD3+CD4+T細胞、CD3+CD8+T細胞及CD4+CD25+FoxP3+Tregs細胞等)通過多種途徑來調節機體免疫反應,這為腦缺血性損害的治療提供了廣闊的前景[5]。近幾年,免疫調節劑作為卒中后治療的輔助用藥,其對卒中后免疫系統的影響逐漸被重視。多項研究發現,缺血性卒中后針對免疫通路的治療可以延長溶栓時間窗,并且改善患者的遠期預后。本文主要對近幾年缺血性卒中后免疫機制及免疫調節劑應用的相關研究進展進行綜述。
1.1 固有免疫反應 缺血性卒中可使補體激活以及發生氧化應激反應,直接損害局部的血管系統,導致血管內皮下抗原的暴露、血管內皮細胞死亡和血腦屏障(blood brain barrier,BBB)完整性的破壞。機體調動固有免疫系統,使免疫細胞附著于血管壁,上調趨化因子和黏附分子的表達,使其滲透入腦實質。中性粒細胞、單核細胞和巨噬細胞等固有免疫細胞進一步導致血管損傷和炎癥反應。免疫細胞通過釋放基質金屬蛋白酶(matrix metallo-proteinases,MMP)-9等炎性介質,導致BBB的破壞和梗死面積的擴大[6]。在腦實質中,星形膠質細胞和小膠質細胞也被炎癥和死亡神經元釋放的DAMPs激活。DAMPs與免疫細胞表面的Toll樣受體(toll-like receptors,TLRs)結合激活和放大固有免疫反應,加重缺血性損傷,但短暫激活TLRs可以誘導免疫耐受[7-8]。這些反應性星形膠質細胞和小膠質細胞進一步刺激白細胞的聚集,釋放促炎趨化因子,形成一個血管損傷、炎癥和細胞死亡的惡性循環[9]。
1.2 適應性免疫反應 適應性免疫反應主要由效應T細胞介導,后者是由死亡的神經元釋放的DAMPs和腦組織特異性的抗原刺激產生[10]。這些T細胞聚集到缺血性損傷的大腦區域,穿過受損的BBB后,于腦實質內釋放炎性細胞因子,包括CRP、IL-1、IL-6、TNF、IFN等,導致遲發性神經毒性反應[11-12]。最終炎癥過程結束是通過調節性T細胞(Tregs)和巨噬細胞產生的IL-10及轉化生長因子-β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)聯合作用,抑制輔助T細胞介導的炎癥反應,促進神經元的修復[13-14]。Tregs主要起免疫負調節作用,有抑制抗原特異性T細胞增殖及抗原呈遞細胞的功能,在免疫耐受中發揮重要作用。動物試驗觀察到,在缺血性卒中后的3 d,Tregs在缺血側大腦半球累積,脾臟T淋巴細胞中Tregs百分比升高[15]。Tregs在病程后期(14~30 d)在缺血側大腦半球明顯累積和擴散[16]。在Tregs治療腦梗死動物的研究中觀察到,Tregs可使腦梗死體積減小且減輕大腦炎癥反應[17]。擴增體內Tregs可減輕炎癥反應和改善預后[18]。
1.3 卒中后免疫抑制綜合征 2005年,Meisel等[19]提出了卒中誘導的免疫抑制綜合征(strokeinduced immunodepression syndrome,SIDS),其特征是急性卒中后出現快速和持續的細胞免疫反應抑制,主要表現為廣泛的淋巴細胞凋亡和功能障礙。SIDS實質為神經-內分泌-免疫調節機制:①缺血性卒中→應激→下丘腦-垂體-腎上腺軸活動增強→腎上腺皮質激素分泌增加→外周血T淋巴細胞數下降;②缺血性卒中→交感神經系統活動增強→腎上腺及交感神經末梢釋放兒茶酚胺類激素增加→外周血、肝臟、脾臟T淋巴細胞數下降[20]。
SIDS對于機體具有雙向調節作用。一方面,卒中后免疫抑制是一種適應性反應,阻止中樞神經系統不必要的自身免疫抗體,從而起到神經保護作用[21]。動物試驗及臨床試驗證明,削弱固有免疫和適應性免疫反應可改善卒中預后。動物實驗表明,抑制性CD8+及CD4+T細胞遷移到中樞神經系統和直接破壞細胞毒性CD8+T細胞可使梗死體積減小及缺血后炎癥反應減弱[22]。Zierath等[23]在大鼠實驗中發現,在再灌注時分別給予細菌脂多糖(lipopoly-saccharide,LPS)能模擬炎癥刺激,與其他各組比較,卒中后感染組大鼠死亡率更高,神經功能評分更差,表明炎性反應可使卒中結局惡化,還會增加腦梗死后腦萎縮程度。另一方面,卒中后免疫抑制將會導致感染如肺炎和尿路感染等發病率的增加[21]。卒中發病后7 d內發生的感染為卒中相關性感染(strokeassociated infection,SAI)[24]。亞急性皮質醇增多癥與卒中后24 h不良預后[25]及死亡率增高相關[26]。Vogelgesang等[27]發現,腦梗死后外周血淋巴細胞、CD3+T細胞、CD3+CD4+T細胞、CD3+CD8+T細胞絕對值在發病當天即下降,之后逐漸上升,于發病后14 d恢復至與健康對照組無差異,卒中后感染者的T淋巴細胞亞群下降較非感染者下降更為明顯。Urra等[28]通過觀察46例急性缺血性卒中及腦出血患者發現,外周血中淋巴細胞、CD3+T細胞、CD3+CD4+T細胞、CD3+CD8+T細胞及CD4+CD25+FoxP3+Tregs細胞在發病后當天開始下降,第2天降至最低,后逐漸回升;肺部感染者細胞數明顯低于非感染者。T淋巴細胞減少可能作為卒中后感染的一個預測因素,通過檢測T淋巴細胞亞群的變化,可以輔助判斷卒中患者的免疫狀態,用于指導治療和判斷預后[29]。
對固有免疫與適應性免疫以及炎癥的調節可以促使免疫反應由組織損傷向神經保護轉換[5]。卒中后針對免疫通路的治療可能延長溶栓時間窗,并且改善遠期預后。免疫調節劑作為輔助用藥,為卒中的治療開辟了一條新思路。
2.1 芬戈莫德(Fingolimod,FTY720) 芬戈莫德作為目前受到廣泛關注的免疫調節劑之一,2010年成為首個通過美國食品及藥物管理局(Food and Drug Administration,FDA)批準的治療多發性硬化(multiple sclerosis,MS)的口服生物有效性藥物。其活性形式FTY720-磷酸是1-磷酸-鞘氨醇(sphingosine 1-phosphate,S1P)類似物,與細胞膜S1P受體結合。
F T Y 720的主要作用有:①免疫調節:FTY720與T淋巴細胞和B淋巴細胞S1P受體結合,抑制淋巴細胞再循環從初級淋巴器官排出[30-31]。通過減少中樞神經系統淋巴細胞浸潤的數量,有效地降低適應性免疫反應對中樞神經系統的直接神經毒性作用,降低細胞因子誘導的微循環系統周圍的缺血繼發的炎性損傷[32-34]。②血管保護作用:FTY720可誘導星形膠質細胞釋放粒細胞/巨噬細胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor,GM-CSF),減少與TNF-α和IFN-γ接觸的內皮細胞的死亡[35]。GMCSF也可降低白細胞在血管壁的黏附和局部血小板的激活,抑制血栓形成和炎癥反應,改善微血管功能[32,36]。此外,S1P受體也表達于血管內皮細胞,FTY720與之結合可以直接提高BBB的完整性[37]。③直接神經保護作用:FTY720通過直接與神經元受體相互作用,促進抗凋亡因子的產生,且增加缺血性損傷的恢復力,從而起到神經保護作用[38]。
Liu等[39]回顧總結了2013年之前的9項關于FTY720對缺血性卒中治療的動物試驗,其中8項研究結果均顯示FTY720能減少腦梗死體積且改善功能預后。2014年天津市神經病學研究所進行了一項臨床試驗,發現急性缺血性卒中患者發病72 h內口服FTY720可限制腦缺血繼發損傷,降低微血管通透性,減輕神經損傷,并且促進神經功能恢復[40-41]。鑒于FTY720對內皮屏障的保護功能,重組組織型纖溶酶原激活物(recombinant tissue plasminogen activator,rt-PA)聯合FTY720療法為溶栓時間窗內的缺血性卒中開辟了一條新的治療思路[42]。在血栓栓塞性腦梗死小鼠模型中觀察到,FTY720可減低rt-PA治療所致的出血轉換并促進神經功能恢復[43]。臨床試驗發現,在急性缺血性卒中患者溶栓后第1天,FTY720聯合rt-PA治療與單獨rt-PA治療組相比,可以抑制病灶的擴大,減少出血和提高神經功能評分[44]。
2.2 他汀類藥物 除了調節血脂代謝的作用,他汀類藥物在缺血性卒中中的抗炎作用逐漸被重視。動物實驗發現,預防性他汀治療可以減輕缺血性腦損傷,促進腦灌注及神經功恢復,并且可以延長rt-PA治療缺血性卒中的時間窗[45-46]。
臨床試驗觀察到,缺血性卒中發病24 h內應用辛伐他汀治療的患者較發病7 d后加用辛伐他汀治療的患者,血清中的TNF-α水平輕度降低[47]。一項對臨床前研究的薈萃分析顯示,服用他汀類藥物后大腦中動脈阻塞所致腦梗死體積平均減小11.2%[48]。他汀類藥物減慢動脈粥樣化形成的作用一部分源于調節脂質代謝,但在低動脈硬化風險患者中也發現其可降低心肌梗死和缺血性卒中風險[49]。臨床試驗觀察到,在無高脂血癥但高敏C-反應蛋白水平升高的健康人群中,瑞舒伐他汀也可顯著降低主要心血管事件的發生率[50]。
綜上所述,免疫系統在缺血性卒中病理過程中發揮的重要作用正逐漸得到揭示,但其機制復雜,還有待更加深入的研究。卒中會打破神經系統與免疫系統之間的平衡,造成內穩態失衡。因此,適當的免疫調節治療是需要的。未來需要更多的大樣本臨床試驗,進一步闡明免疫調節劑對于缺血性卒中的有效性及安全性。相信在不久的將來可以看到免疫調節劑在臨床中的廣泛應用。
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【點睛】缺血性卒中后免疫反應激活或抑制的機制復雜,針對性的免疫調節劑臨床研究結果尚不確定,但前景較廣。