摘 ? ?要:隱喻是人們借助于一個概念領域去理解另一個不同的概念領域結構。隱喻不僅是一種修辭手法,更是一種思維方式。英語寫作水平的高低,與英語隱喻思維能力成正比,所以在英語寫作教學中,應對學生施以隱喻教育,培養(yǎng)其隱喻思維能力及隱喻表達能力,最終提升學生的英語寫作水平。
關鍵詞:隱喻理論;英語寫作;教學
中圖分類號:G642 ? ? ?文獻標識碼:A ? ? ?文章編號:1002-4107(2022)07-0057-03
隱喻是功能語言學中一個非常重要的研究內(nèi)容。隱喻是人們借助于一個概念領域去理解另一個不同的概念領域結構[1]。相關學者考察了大量英語語料,發(fā)現(xiàn)語言中充滿了隱喻或隱喻性表達。而且可以明顯感覺到隱喻式表達比一般表達更能深刻地、持久地影響讀者。Lakoff及后來的許多語言學家都認為,隱喻不僅僅是一種語言現(xiàn)象,更是一種思維方式。
隱喻式思維與英語學習者的寫作水平緊密聯(lián)系。熊學亮和劉東虹專門就英語學習者在英語寫作中使用隱喻的情況進行過調(diào)查,結果發(fā)現(xiàn)高水平的英語學習者,其語法隱喻使用頻率遠遠超過低水平者,從而說明英語學習者的語言水平越高,對英語的隱喻思維能力和表達能力就越強[2]。
文章結合廣東白云學院外國語學院英語專業(yè)學生的寫作實例,著重分析當前高等院校學生在英語寫作中所暴露出來的隱喻思維欠缺的問題,闡述在寫作教學中加強隱喻思維教學的重要性及教學思路。
一、英語寫作中的弊病
根據(jù)多年的英語寫作教學經(jīng)驗,作者發(fā)現(xiàn)除了文法基礎不牢固所導致的語言不通順、篇章意識模糊而帶來的條理不清楚兩大固疾之外,由于受到隱喻能力的制約,學生在英語寫作中還存在另外四大問題,即用詞膚淺、句式單一、內(nèi)容空洞及文體特征不顯著。
(一)用詞膚淺
現(xiàn)代隱喻理論就語言形式將隱喻分為詞匯隱喻和語法隱喻。很早以前,人們就意識到詞匯隱喻這種語言現(xiàn)象,而且它是所有隱喻形式中運用最廣泛,也是人們隱喻思維的一個最根本表現(xiàn)。通俗地講,詞匯隱喻是用一事物的特點來比喻另一事物,利用本體與喻體之間的張力,引起讀者的聯(lián)想,從而豐富表達的內(nèi)容。但是,學生在寫作中遣詞過分小心,只敢啟用詞語的本意,不敢“越雷池半步”,導致其行文用詞膚淺,語義狹窄,直接影響了語言表達的廣度和深度。如:Love hurts him very deeply. (句中“hurt”屬于本意詞,表達效果一般,如果采用隱喻式表達,就可以起到感染讀者的作用,故可將“hurts”換成“burns”這個隱喻詞,此句改為: “Love burns his heart.”愛情像火一樣,灼燒了他的心。從而生動地描述了他在戀愛中感受到的苦痛。)又如:The aisle was full of boys and girls.(上句中“full of ”就不如隱喻式表達“flooded with”更能渲染場景。)
(二)句式單一
語法隱喻是Halliday在傳統(tǒng)隱喻理論的基礎上發(fā)展起來的,他認為,語法隱喻是將一個常見的語法形式,即“一致式”(congruence)隱喻為另一種語法形式。Halliday將語法隱喻分為概念隱喻和人際隱喻,分別實現(xiàn)語言表達經(jīng)驗及實際交際的兩種元功能,其中概念隱喻的主要體現(xiàn)是及物性隱喻,即用一種及物性過程代替另一種及物性過程,它還涉及與過程有關的參與者、環(huán)境等功能成分的改變[3]7。及物性隱喻具有形象、生動、新穎、句法形式多樣化等優(yōu)點。在恰當時候采用及物性隱喻往往會取得不同于“一致式”表達的良好效果,但是,學生往往缺乏及物性隱喻的觀念,在寫作過程中,單純采用“一致式”表達,導致句式單一。如:
In those days, my grandparents were leading a dog's life.
(They got up very early to cook the breakfast in the morn-
ing every day, and they had to go to the mountain to find some traditional Chinese medicine, because they did not have enough money to buy their medicine. They ate vegetable, they
did not have money to buy meat to eat, they had to give some money to their children to go to school.)
(文段第一句為教師所給的主題句,括號內(nèi)部分為學生所寫。下同。)
上段中涉及3種過程,其中有兩個行為過程“got up”“go to the mountain”,3個物質過程“cook the breakfast”
“ate vegetable”“buy their medicine”,一個是關系過程“did
not have money”,全部是以“they”(即“my grandparents”)作為參與者的“一致式”表達,體現(xiàn)不出“my grandparents”在這種生活中的壓迫和無奈。如果在寫作中能變通及物性過程的主體,適時地采用及物性隱喻,表達效果就要好得多。建議改為:
In those days, my grandparents were leading a dog's life. Every morning, they got up very early because they were forced to cook for the landlord. What the landlord ate were delicacies, while they had to suffer starving and go to the fields,where the heavy work was waiting for them. When they were ill, due to the lack of money for medicine and doctors, the only access for them was to search for Chinese medicine at all kinds of risks in the mountains, where the poisonous snakes may be the terminator of their lives.9E3E16A6-E6C1-4FAB-BBD5-A3828749F3C7
又如:
Today I would explain the process of making Sushi.(First, you should prepare all materials in advance, such as Sashimi, cooked rice, linked bamboo slips and dried laver. Second, let's lay linked bamboo slips on the table. Third,you ought to take a piece of dried laver sheet on linked bamboo slips. Fourth, put cooked rice on dried laver and Sashimi on it. Fifth, you roll with the dried laver. Sixth, you cut the dried laver sheet about five pieces. Finally, you put the small dried laver sheet in plate.)
以上文段全部是以“you”為參與者的物質過程,雖然條理清楚,但是因為表達中概念隱喻的缺失,句式單一,使得 “making Sushi”過程介紹顯得毫無生趣。不如改為:
Today I would explain the process of making Sushi.With all the materials, such as sashimi, cooked rice, linked bamboo slips and dried laver being prepared, you can start your procedure. Firstly, spread the linked bamboo slips on the table, and then lay a piece of dried laver on the slips. Fol-
lowingly, some dried laver and sashimi should be put on it. Then you roll the bamboo slips to make them a reel before they are cut into five slices. When all are done, you can put them onto a fine plate and enjoy it.
概念隱喻的另一種實現(xiàn)形式是名詞化表達(nomina-
lization),它可以使大量的信息濃縮在名詞性結構中,使
小句的詞匯密度增大,表義更豐富。但是,學生不能理解這種隱喻表達,在寫作中單純使用動詞結構,使得小句內(nèi)容單薄。如:
However, plastic bags also bring us many side effects. (Firstly, ①it can cause lots of pollution, because ②it includes
something chemistry ③which can't disappear. Then, ④lots of rubbish will pollute the earth. Secondly, ⑤it can not only pollute the earth, but also affect our body. So, ⑥we must stop the environmental pollution, or ⑦we will lose our home.)
該文段主題句要求說明塑料購物袋給人們帶來諸多副作用,但學生在習作中雖然用了7個小句,僅僅說明了兩個副作用(pollute the earth, affect our body),而且因為缺少名詞化表達,使得內(nèi)容顯得很單薄且空洞,缺少信息深度和密度。建議改為:
However, plastic bags also bring us many side effects. Firstly, plastic bags are made of chemicals, which, when disposed as waste, will not disappear in a long time. Too fre-
quent usage of them will lead to a lot of pollution to our land, water and even air. Secondly, plastic bags will do damage to our human being physically, for if we take in too much of them, our bodies will be destroyed. Hence, it is our pistol to reduce the usage of plastic bags.
(三)內(nèi)容空洞
隱喻是探索、描寫、理解和解釋新情景的有力工具[4]。但是,學生在寫作中很少有能力借用這個有力工具,如:
It is the most exciting moment I have experienced so far. (Today is my birthday, my parents hold a birthday party for me. This evening in my birthday party, I saw my many good friends and my cousins. And I received a lot of presents, I felt9E3E16A6-E6C1-4FAB-BBD5-A3828749F3C7
very happy. The people in the party sang a birthday song to me and they gave me a big birthday cake. I think this is the most exciting moment that I have experienced so far, I wanted
to say thank you to my parents, my good friends and my cousins.)
上文只是簡單敘述了自己所見(I saw)、所做(received)、
所想(I felt,I wanted),用詞全部為寫實性。因為缺少隱喻式表達,本文段顯得很平淡,體現(xiàn)不出興奮的情感。但如果在寫作中能適當添加一些隱喻式表達,效果會好很多。建議改為:
It is the most exciting moment I have experienced so far. Today is my 18th birthday. My parents have prepared a huge birthday cake for me and held a special birthday party. My good friends and cousins, who were invited, all bring me all kinds of beautiful gifts. One of the gifts is a King Kong Super-
man that I have been longing for! At the party, they sing birthday songs for me. My whole house is immersed in a sea of happiness and excitement. Before blowing out the birthday candle, I secretly make a wish, that is: my dear mom and Dad, good friends and cousins, I wish you health and happi-
ness forever!
又如:
I can not understand the emotions in his eyes. (His curly eyelash is over his eyes, his pouch is small but his eyeballs are big and clearly make black and white. All is well, but I can't read the emotions of his eyes. His eyes can spread some-
thing to me. Just nothing in it.)
該文段中主題句本是要求學生描寫一個人的眼神,通過描寫傳達出此人的某種隱秘情緒,或悲傷,或絕望,或羞怯等。文段雖然做了細節(jié)描寫,寫到eyelash, pouch,
eyeballs,但是均為一般性陳述,沒有運用隱喻式表達,所以未能有效地傳神,使讀者對于作者所描寫的對象仍然產(chǎn)生不了任何印象,更無法激發(fā)讀者的情感認同。但是,如果在這段外貌描寫中加入一些隱喻式表達,就會給描寫增加神韻,就可以實現(xiàn)外貌描寫的最終目的,即傳遞作者對被描寫者的某種特定情感。試對比下文:
I can not understand the emotions in his eyes. The boy, who looks under seven years old, has just been rescued from an explosion in which his family, including his father, mother
and sister, were killed. Since the rescuers took him out of the ruins, he has kept his eyes wide open. His eyes, black as grapes, seem to pop out of the eye frame, and his white eyes are covered with blood streaks. His eyelashes, very thick and long, are typical of Arab boys. If you see a child with such eyelashes on a street in China, you will surely exclaim, "Oh,
he's so beautiful!" However, at this time, you can only feel heart-broken for him!
(四)文體特征不明顯
隱喻是可以構成文體風格特征的一個要素[5]。而學生在寫作中往往忽視隱喻的使用,或者不能恰當運用隱喻,導致文體特征不明顯。作者曾在教學中要求學生對當代畫家羅中立的著名油畫《父親》進行人物描寫,寫出一段話。學生普遍缺乏隱喻思維,寫出來的大部分是白描式
的,缺乏感染力,缺乏描寫的文體特征。如:
He is an old man. His skin is dark brown, and there are wrinkles on his face. He has a hat on his head that I cannot know that what color is his hair. He stares at the front with his deep eyes, no one knows what he's thinking. There is a mole on the left side of his big nose. His lips are very dry and look like he wants to drink from the bowl in his hand. He has some white beard on his chin.9E3E16A6-E6C1-4FAB-BBD5-A3828749F3C7
二、原因分析
學生在英語寫作中表現(xiàn)出以上4種“癥狀”,雖然從整體上說是學生隱喻能力欠缺的表現(xiàn),卻可以追溯到多種因素的共同作用。
(一)隱喻意識不強
學生在寫作中出現(xiàn)的各種問題,首先應歸結為隱喻意識不強。他們對隱喻缺乏最基本認知,對于隱喻的運行機制更是不甚了解。在識記單詞時,只是死記硬背單詞的詞典意思,缺乏靈活性,也缺乏深究詞匯延展意的精神。例如,“prey”一詞,本意是指“被捕食的獵物”,但在特定語境中,也可喻指“受害的人”,對此,學生往往不甚了解。在寫句子時,學生也只滿足于“陳述”意思,卻不懂得巧妙地避開“一致式”表達,運用及物性隱喻或名詞化表達等多種隱喻機制,豐富而有效地“表達”意思。
(二)文化遷移能力不夠
由于文化背景的差異,英語與漢語的隱喻機制不同,而且英語學習者往往對目的語文化了解不夠,因而對隱喻差異認識不足,導致他們在寫作過程中由漢語導向英語的隱喻會出現(xiàn)負遷移現(xiàn)象。例如,漢語將“悲慘的生活”比喻成“牛馬不如的生活”,而英語中相對應的表達為
a dogs life(如上文例3),學生對此認識不足,便認為是“狗的生活”,于是出現(xiàn)偏離主題的現(xiàn)象。漢語中,描述一個人“焦躁不安”,視其為“熱鍋上的螞蟻”,學生便在寫作中表述為“an ant on the hot pan”,卻不知在英語中應為
“a cat on the hot brick”。
(三)教師對于隱喻認識不充分
許多教師由于受到傳統(tǒng)隱喻理論的影響,一般將隱喻視為修辭領域的概念。在語言教學大綱中,更偏向于將其歸入修辭學的范疇,因而沒有將其視為語言教學中的一項基礎且重要的內(nèi)容加以認真考慮。英語寫作的教學環(huán)節(jié)中缺乏對學生隱喻思維的培養(yǎng),致使隱喻教育的缺失。
(四)應試教育的誤導
當前以大學英語四六級考試(CET)及專業(yè)英語考試(TEM)為代表的各類權威考試的寫作體裁以說明文及議論文為主,這類文體隱喻要求不高。同時,長期的考試體制導致學生只注重篇章結構和套用句型,大大忽視隱喻的運用。學生只為通過考試,不求甚解,一味地背誦一些教材提供的所謂“萬能句型”,以及一些形似“八股文”的例文。但是,寫作絕不是單純模仿,而應該是一個激發(fā)學生創(chuàng)造性思維的過程。而當前各類考試中的寫作題目,無疑會禁錮學生的創(chuàng)造性思維,不利于學生寫作水平的提高。
三、在英語寫作教學中引入隱喻理念
鑒于隱喻思維的重要性,受隱喻認知理論的影響,目前國內(nèi)外已有不少學者提出在教學中要注意培養(yǎng)學生的“隱喻能力”,并將這種能力單獨列出來,與語言能力、交際能力并列為三大能力[6]。
(一)培養(yǎng)學生的詞匯隱喻思維
在寫作中,詞匯居于核心地位,不論是句子層面的語言現(xiàn)象,還是語篇層面的語言現(xiàn)象,都離不開對詞匯的理解和運用,所以在寫作教學中,教師應向學生傳授詞匯隱喻思維,讓學生在記單詞時不僅要記住詞匯本意,更要關注其隱喻義;幫助學生聚集兩個領域的相似點,建立兩個領域詞匯之間的聯(lián)系,從而促進學生觸類旁通地領悟、記憶和應用語言知識,通過有意識地認知和聯(lián)想擴大和發(fā)展詞匯網(wǎng)絡;要求學生在寫作中有意識地采用詞匯的隱喻義來表達思想和情感。
(二)在語篇層次導入隱喻機制
在幫助學生理解概念隱喻的基礎上,引導其充分利用隱喻機制寫句子。在寫作教學中,可在例文解析中幫助學生分析語篇上的各種隱喻機制,強化學生的隱喻意識,包括概念隱喻和人際隱喻,幫助學生理解其產(chǎn)生機理及作用,引導學生模仿,并最終實現(xiàn)創(chuàng)造性運用隱喻進行寫作的目的。同時,教師還應教育學生,隱喻機制是某些文體的基本特征。Halliday運用語法隱喻分析科學語篇后發(fā)現(xiàn),科學語篇最顯著的特征之一便是大量使用名詞化表達,這是一種語法隱喻,這種隱喻降低了原有的級階,便于語篇的展開。隱喻也是新聞語體和廣告語體等的文體特征要素[3]121。
(三)引導學生多關注文化
文化在概念隱喻的形成過程中起著重要作用。隱喻本身是文化的構成部分,隱喻能夠在很大程度上反映文化的內(nèi)容[7]。所以,在平時的教學中,教師要引導學生多關注西方文化,鼓勵學生多了解西方歷史,多看羅馬神話、《圣經(jīng)》,以及文學名著,因為許多隱喻性表達都來自于這些作品。例如,“crusade”這個詞原義指“十字軍”,后來延伸至“討伐”之意。同時,教師也應引導學生關注中西方文化差異,因為中西方不同的文化背景和文化傳統(tǒng)及價值觀念必然對隱喻產(chǎn)生不同的影響,必須通過探討其不同的文化模式進行解釋。
語言的理解,語言的使用,本質上就是一個創(chuàng)造性的過程,尤其是寫作。培養(yǎng)學生的英語寫作水平,實際上就是培養(yǎng)學生運用英語知識進行思維創(chuàng)造的過程,而在寫作中恰當?shù)剡\用隱喻,不僅能創(chuàng)造新的意義,還能表達出新的思想。因此,在英語寫作教學中,教師應具備高度的隱喻意識,同時應及時有效地向學生傳授隱喻理論,培養(yǎng)其隱喻思維,這樣學生能在領悟隱喻的過程中感受到語言和思維的妙趣橫生,有助于提高其學習語言、學習寫作的動機和效率。
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編輯∕李夢迪
收稿日期:2021-06-17 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?修回日期:2021-07-22
作者簡介:雷萍莉(1978—),女,湖北安陸人,廣東白云學院外國語學院講師,研究方向:英語語言文學、英語寫作教學。
基金項目:2017年廣東省教育廳質量工程項目“《商務英語寫作精品資源共享課》建設”(CXQX-ZL201707);2016年度廣東省哲學社會科學“十三五”規(guī)劃項目“成果導向型英語寫作課程的教學范式改革”(GD16WXZ02)9E3E16A6-E6C1-4FAB-BBD5-A3828749F3C7