Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ Ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ， Ｓｈａｐｉｎｇ ａｎｄ Ｍｏｌｄｉｎｇ

［摘 要］American identities have long been widely noted and extensively discussed in academic studies on American culture and society， as the United States has become world power in 20th century.In fact， early scholars from John Hector Crevecoeur， to de Tocqueville， the author of Democracy in America， to Frederick Jackson Turner， an American historian， have all made insightful observations on American identities.According to them， Americans exhibit the following identities as: freedom-loving， individualistic， self-reliant， hard working and aggressive， thrift and naive， optimistically exuberant， high value on material success and cultural pluralism.

The author tries to depict more comprehensive picture on the molding and shaping of American identities from three sources: colonization laid the foundation for American identities， while Westward Movement reinforced and further molded those characters，and it was the influences from later immigrants that depicted the final tone of Americans as a nation that loves freedom， individualistic， self-reliant， hard working and aggressive， thrift and naive， optimistically exuberant， high value on material success and cultural pluralism.

［關(guān)鍵詞］American identities shaping and molding colonization Westward Movement immigration

［中圖分類號］G1 ［文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼］A ［文章編號］1009－5489(2008)10－0183－05

Introduction

In 1782， a French immigrant and scholar of natural history， J.Hector St.John De Crevecoeur， published a book of 12 articles， Letters from an American Farmer， in which he posed a question， \"What then is the American， this new man?\" He then continued， \"He is either an European， or the descendant of an European， hence that strange mixture of blood， which you will find in no other country.I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman， whose wife was Dutch， whose son married a French woman， and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations.He is an American， who， leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners， receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced， the new government he obeys， and the new rank he holds.He becomes an American by being received in the broad lap of our great Alma Mater.Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men， whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world.\"

This can be seen as the earliest definition about the notion of American identities.

In Webster's Dictionary of American English， four explanations are provided for the word \"identity\".1.the state or fact of remaining the same; the condition of being oneself， and not another.2.condition or character as to who a person is or what a thing is.3.the sense of self， providing a feeling of sameness and continuity; individuality.4.the state or fact of being the same one as described.In this paper， when it comes to \"American identities\"， the author actually uses the word \"identity\" as a countable noun， which is an equivalent of the second definition， \"condition or character as to who a person is or what a thing is\".

Literature Review about American Identities

American identities have long been widely noted and extensively discussed in both academic studies on American culture and society and general circumstances as well.On some occasions， as far as American identities are concerned， people talk about different Americans like African Americans， Asian Americans， Native Americans， Hispanic Americans so on and so forth.However， in many other contexts， we can find that Americans define themselves not by their racial， religious and ethnic identity but their common values and beliefs.

J.Hector St.John De Crevecoeur could be considered the earliest scholar who had a keen and insightful perception of the American identities.He posed the question and quested into the nature of the amazing multi-identity of American， this \"new man\"， though the multiplicity of American， this \"new man\" became far greater and more complicated than he could ever imagined in the following two centuries.In fact， since before and after the establishment of the nation of the United States， immigrants coming from almost all over the world were admitted into this country beyond Europeans: Africans， Asians， Hispanics and so on.In the eyes of these immigrants， this new man is totally different from what he bears from his whatever ancestors.Millions more of this \"new man\" formed the new nationality， as well as the new identity as Americans， and thus displayed multitude American identities.

Another noted scholar who made insightful observation on American identities is Alexis De Tocqueville， a French observer.De Tocqueville went to the United States to study American form of democracy and what it might mean to the rest of the world.After a visit of nine months， he wrote a remarkable book called Democracy in America， which is a \"classic study of American way of life\".Though the focus of his study was the political system and the government of this newly established nation， he had unusual powers of observation on its people: their thinking， their way of life and doing things..He noted that individualism and restlessness are typical twin characters of Americans.He was amazed that the two could be ideally balanced and yet existed side by side with the love for equality and freedom.These two are still thought as typical American characters today.Tocqueville thought Americans were pleasant， enthusiastic， optimistic and na?ve.

The most important scholar to approach American identities or national characters， however， is Frederick Jackson Turner， an American historian.In 1893， Turner published the Significance of the Frontier in American History.In this book， he presented \"frontier thesis\"， which affirmed that the national characters of Americans were chiefly molded by its people's westward to pioneer for different frontiers.According to Turner， the deep significance of the frontier lay in the effects of this social recapitulation on the American character.He argued that the frontier is \"the line of Americanization\"， and the presence and predominance of numerous cultural traits —— \"that coarseness and strength combined with acuteness and acquisitiveness; that practical inventive turn of mind， quick to find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things， lacking in the artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless， nervous energy; that dominant individualism， working for good and for evil， and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with freedom\"—— could all be attributed to the influence of the frontier.A historian as he was， Turner created a new dimension in analyzing the national character of the United States by adding to a geographical perspective.Besides， Turner is the first one who clearly defined Americans in terms of national identities.These traits defined by Turner were extensively recognized and widely accepted both academically and in general sense， and thus laid a theoretical foundation for the study of American identities.

With the continuing development of the academic disciplines particularly in the social and behavioral sciences， the concept of national identity has gained conceptual clarity and methodological rigor.The study of American identity found its way to the books and reviews of scholars almost from all disciplines: historians， sociologists， philosophers， psychologists， anthropologist， politicians， journalists， writers， playwrights as well as dramatists.

Other prominent social events and activities in the United States， like baby boom， the Vietnam War， the Civil Rights Movement， helped the Americans to redefine their culture and re-examine their common values and the necessity of national unity.Scholars tried to illustrate the American identity from different angles: community and individual， behaviorism and empirical etc.However， not until the beginning of 1990s， the mainstream academic circle in the American studies was still dominated by \"melting pot\" theory.With the new waves of immigrants， as well as problems arising from races and ethnicities， a new term emerged.\"Salad Bowl\" became new preference.\"Salad Bowl\" indicates a more tolerant perspective in treating those minorities in the United States as their population grew larger.There are Asian Americans， Hispanics， African Americans， WASPs， native Americans and so on.Each ethnicity is expected to reserve its own culture and traditions.

The \"911\" terrorist attack and the Iraqi war in recent years have brought America back to global focus， which revived a new surge for the study of American identities or characters.In this context， old \"American Dream\" was questioned and most contemporary scholars of American studies attempted to find some new values and beliefs that existed in all Americans.They began to re-examine their old values and beliefs about the nation and the people trying to bring the doubtful people domestically together.After all， the American identities can be well illustrated by their core values.Scholars of American studies have tried to figure out a dominant and enduring value system as the index of national character.

In the early 1960s， Ethel Albert and Robin Williams drew particular attention to these salient features:

* An activist approach to life， based on mastery rather than passive acceptance of events

* Emphasis on achievement and success， understood largely as material prosperity

* A moral character， oriented to such Puritan virtues as duty， industry， and sobriety

* Religious faith

* Science and secular rationality， encouraged by a view of the universe as orderly， knowable， and benign， and emphasizing an external rather than inward view of the world

* A progressive rather than traditionalist or static view of history， governed by optimism， confidence in the future， and a belief that progress can be achieved by effort

* Equality， with a horizontal or equalitarian rather than hierarchical view of social relations

* High evaluation of individual personality， rather than collective identity or responsibility

* Self-reliance

* Humanitarianism

* External conformity

* Tolerance of diversity

* Efficiency and practicality

* Freedom

* Democracy

* Nationalism and patriotism

* Idealism and perfectionism

* Mobility and change

Shaping and Molding of American Identities

Erik.H.Erikson， once made interesting illustrations on American character.He remarked in Childhood and Society， \"It is a commonplace to state that whatever one may come to consider a truly American trait can be shown to have its equally characteristic opposite.This， one suspects， is true of all 'national characters，' or (as I would prefer to call them national identities) so true， in fact， that one may begin rather than end with the proposition that a nation's identity is derived from the ways in which history has， as it were， counter pointed certain opposite personalities; the ways in which it lifts this counterpoint to a unique style of civilization， or lets it disintegrate into mere contradiction.\"

Though many people have tried to define American people from various perspectives， whatever identities Americans may have， either \"that coarseness and strength combined with acuteness and acquisitiveness; that practical inventive turn of mind， quick to find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things...that restless， nervous energy; that dominant individualism\" defined by Frederick Turner， or that \"new man\" after being melted in the \"melting pot\" or different ingredients in the \"salad bowl\"， these identities got their preliminary formation from the traditional values in the colonial period.

Colonization and Primary Formation of American Identities

Colonization of North America had a profound impact on the formation of American identities.It was the traditional values founded during this period that gave the primary formation to the basic identities of America and its people.

Love of freedom is the most basic traditional value cherished by Americans.The earliest settlers came to the new continent to establish colonies that were free from the controls that existed in the old world.They wanted to escape the controls placed on their lives by kings and governments， priests and churches， noblemen and aristocrats.They wished to establish a new order for the new society， and so they did.When the 13 British colonial settlers declared independence from England to build a new nation， they discarded all those old traditions in Europe.When they wrote the Constitution for the new nation， they explicitly forbade titles of nobility to ensure that an aristocratic society would not emerge， limiting the power of the government and churches.By doing so they created a climate of freedom and individualism.

To enjoy individual freedom， they also had to be self-reliant.Americans appreciated self-reliance or \"standing on their own two feet\".De Tocqueville once observed， \"They owe nothing to any man， they expect nothing from any man; they acquire the habit of always considering themselves as standing alone， and they are apt to imagine that their whole destiny is in their own hand.\" Most Americans believe that they must be self-reliant to keep their freedom.

Another value Americans cherished is equality for opportunity.When the first settlers came to the new world， it was far from a \"land full of milk\"， but it was considered by those colonists as a promising land， a land of opportunities.They came from the old land that was governed by kings and noble classes in Europe， where some were destined to be superior to most others and people's place in life was largely determined by the social class they were born.Due to the lack of hereditary aristocracy， the new world was considered to provide better chances for people to pursue individual success through free competition.In fact， equality of opportunity has been thought of as an ethical rule.In the United States' Declaration of Independence， they \"held certain truths to be self-evident， that all Men are created equal， that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights， that among these are Life， Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.\"

President Abraham Lincoln remarked， \"We...wish to allow the humblest man an equal chance to get rich with everybody else.When one starts poor， as most do in the race of life， free society is such that he knows he can better his condition; he knows that there is no fixed condition of labor for his whole life.\"

Since life was considered a \"race\"， then competition was accepted as a fact of life.Free competition was and still is the soul of the American society.Since everybody has a chance to succeed， competition is the \"fair play\".Everybody in the society respect this rule of game.Competition made Americans energetic and aggressive， in addition， competition also places strains on them.

Hard work is also a distinguished traditional value in American society.One important reason for this is that the earliest European settlers on the new continent were Puritans.Puritans were quite different people from their European compatriots of their time.These were a group of people with strong religious belief back in England.The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them Puritans.They came to America out of various reasons， but they were a group of serious， religious people， advocating highly religious and moral principles.The Puritans followed many of the ideas of the Swiss reformer John Calvin.Through the Calvinist influence the Puritans emphasized the then common belief that human beings were basically evil and could do nothing about， and that many of them， though not all， would surely be condemned to hell.Over the years the Puritans built a way of life that was in harmony with their somber religion， one that stressed hard work， thrift， piety， and sobriety.The Puritans established their own religious and moral principles known as American Puritanism， which became one of the enduring influences in American thought and American literature.American Puritanism stressed predestination， original sin， total depravity， and limited atonement (or the salvation of a selected few) from God's grace.With such doctrines in their minds， Puritans left Europe for America in order to establish a theocracy in the New World.Puritans were supposed to abide by those rules both in life and work.Puritans are supposed to work hard， be thrifty， pious and sober.These people were the main force to establish the new nation of the United States as well as its political framework——the Constitution.

Another reason for the Americans to cherish hard work derives from the toughness of life when they settled on this new land.When the first settlers stepped onto the new land， life was extremely hard and tough.They found themselves in a wilderness and they had to fight against the Nature， sickness as well as hunger.Only those who worked hard could survive.Therefore hard work has become a rooted tradition in American society.When we talk about Americans， we describe them as a group of people who“work hard and play hard.”

Materialism is another noted tradition of Americans， too.In other words， Americans are famous for their materialism.This can also be traced back to the influence of colonial period.Many immigrants came to the new continent for a better life because of the abundance of natural resources on the new land.Though most immigrants did not get rich overnight， they did believe that through hard work one could eventually achieve financial success or material wealth.Since the earliest settlers had abolished the titles of nobility in the old world， the only criteria to evaluate one’s success was material wealth or money.So people on this land became very attached to material things， or， material wealth became an important value and an established measure of social status in American society.They also saw material possession as the natural reward for their hard work.James Madison， the father of the American Constitution， even stated that the difference in material possession reflected a difference in personal abilities.

Westward Movement and Americanization

Colonialism， no doubt， was the primary source of American identities.In fact， it was the colonialism that laid the basic framework for the national character of America， giving this nation and its people the earliest identities.However， it was the Westward Movement that reinforced and enriched these characters and identities.Frederick Jackson Turner once noted， \"Since the days when the fleet of Columbus sailed into the waters of the New World， America has been another name for opportunity， and the people of the United States have taken their tone from the incessant expansion which has not only been open but has even been forced upon them.\" When the nation declared its independence from Britain， the United States was only a country composing 13 states in eastern coast of the Atlantic Ocean， where the earliest European settlers established their colonies.With more immigrants coming in， the nation， as well as its people， began to expand westward.People were encouraged to pioneer westward.Some people were forced to the west， others volunteered to pioneer for better lives.Westward was a process of conquering the wilderness and fighting against the Nature.Life was very tough and only those who were strong and tough enough could survive.The frontier experience in the Westward movement not only expanded the territory of the United States， but also forged the American character as a nation with dominancy， aggressiveness and coarseness， providing its people with enduring traits like self-reliance， diligence， thrifty， material-orientation.According to Frederick Jackson Turner， \"The frontier promoted the formation of a composite nationality...In the crucible of the frontier the immigrants were Americanized， liberated， and fused into a mixed race， English in neither nationality nor characteristics.\"

It was also the American frontier experience that molded Americans to be na?ve and optimistic.In the course of the expansion westward， there were different types of frontier: trading frontier， farming frontier， miner frontier， rancher's frontier and hunting frontier.Except for traders， most other pioneers led very simple life.This was particularly true for farmers， miners， hunters and ranchers.Life was only survival and fighting against the Nature.Especially for those settlers on the Great Plains， farmers were the mainstream.Once they settled in a place， they set up to build their own house， farm the land and grow crops.They thought plainly and they behaved directly.They were open-minded and once they harvested， they were happy and contented.And it was that special optimism that helped them overcome all kinds of difficulties on their way westward.This character was carried on from generation to generation.

Influence from Later Immigrants: A Melting Pot or a Salad Bowl?

The United States is known as a nation of immigrants.The earliest settlers came mainly from west Europe.Later people from other parts of the world came too: Africans， Asians， Latin Americans.Africans were brought to the new land by force as slaves， while other immigrants went to America at their own will.Several hundred years passed and immigrants are still moving on.With so many races and ethnic groups， America has become a pluralized society.

In fact， about the diversity and pluralism， there have been two different concepts.One is \"melting pot\".For quite a long time \"melting pot\" mentality dominated both the intellectual circle and political communities， as can be seen from the above remarks.However， starting from the late 1980s， with the rapid transformation of the world economy and societal tides， a new term emerged beyond \"melting pot\": \"mixed salad\" or \"salad bowl\".American society is compared to a salad bowl that contains numerous different ingredients.This idea demonstrates a complete separate perspective that the new comers bring different cultures， where each of these cultures is kept as an essential part to make up the whole.Every distinctive culture or belief is considered to be one of the tastes or ingredients that contribute in forming the whole; therefore its original shape and characteristics are maintained.

Whether to apply the term \"melting pot\" or \"salad bowl\" to the American multiethnic conditions brings about large discussion and controversy.In a way， both serve as an effective and successful metaphor， despite their slight difference.And \"salad bowl\" theory is considered more tolerant and comprehensive.However， one thing that is definite is that this \"melting pot\" nature of American society or the reality of cultural diversity or pluralism also molded the American character， particularly the modern American character.And the values shown above， in reality， reflect the values of pluralism， diversity and tolerance of different cultures.In fact， later immigrants added more to the traditional values in much broader context: racial， ethnic， religious and cultural.With waves of immigrants poured into the new nation with their \"American Dream\"， People came to take diversity and pluralism for granted.This can be a legacy from immigration.received the time or recognition they deserved.The color barrier remained a problem for black dancers up until the 1960's and 70's.

［參考文獻(xiàn)］

［1］J.Hector St.John De Crevecoeur， Letters from an American Farmer http://www.xroads.virginia.edu， 2008.

［2］Luther S.Luedtke，MAKING AMERICA: the Society and Culture of the United States.United States Information Agency， 1987.

［3］Arthur Mann， The One and the Many: Reflections on American Identity.University of Chicago Press， 1979.

［4］Adamic， Louis， A Nation of Nations.New York and London: Harper and Brothers， 1945.

［5］Richard P.Batteiger， Brd Gambill， Charla White， Reading the Great Plains， Oklahoma State University， Harcourt Brace Custom Publishers， 1998.

［6］梅仁毅：《美國研究讀本》，外語教學(xué)與研究出版社2002年版。

［7］王滬寧：《美國反對美國》，上海文藝出版社1991年版。

［8］瑪麗安娜·卡尼·戴特斯曼、喬安·克蘭德爾、愛德華·N·卡尼，朗文：《美國文化背景》，世界圖書出版公司2006年版。