摘要:雄激素促進(jìn)骨骼肌蛋白質(zhì)合成是通過雄激素受體作用的,高原訓(xùn)練時高原低氧抑制蛋白質(zhì)合成,導(dǎo)致肌肉質(zhì)量下降。綜述了雄激素受體的結(jié)構(gòu),作用機(jī)理,在骨骼肌中的作用機(jī)制,低氧和運動對雄激素受體的作用,明確低氧和運動條件下雄激素受體在骨骼肌蛋白質(zhì)合成中的可能作用機(jī)理。
關(guān)鍵詞:雄激素受體;低氧;運動;骨骼肌蛋白質(zhì);綜述
中圖分類號:G804.7文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼:A文章編號:1006-7116(2008)12-0101-07
Effects of androgen receptor on the synthesis of skeletal muscle protein under
the conditions of hypoxemia and movement
YE Ming1,HE Dao-yuan2,ZENG Fan-xing3
(1.Department of Exercise Physiology,Capital Institute of Physical Education,Beijing 100088,China;
2.Department of Physical Education,China Three Gorges University,Yichang 443002,China;
3.Department of Exercise Physiology,Beijing Sports University,Beijing 100084,China)
Abstract: The synthesis of skeletal muscle protein boosted by androgen is carried out via the functions of androgen receptor. During training in an altiplano area, hypoxemia restrains protein synthesis, causing the deterioration of muscle quality. The authors gave an overview of the structure and functioning principle of androgen receptor, functioning mechanism of androgen receptor in skeletal muscle, and effects of hypoxemia and movement on androgen receptor, and specified the mechanism of the possible functioning of androgen receptor in the synthesis of skeletal muscle protein under the conditions of hypoxemia and movement.
Key words: androgen receptor;hypoxemia;movement;skeletal muscle protein;overview
1雄激素受體的結(jié)構(gòu)
1.1雄激素受體的基因組成
雄激素受體(Androgen receptor AR)為單拷貝基因,位于X染色體長臂q11.2~q12,含有8個外顯子,轉(zhuǎn)錄形成讀碼框約2 757個堿基的mRNA,可編碼910~920個氨基酸,較公認(rèn)的是編碼含918個氨基酸的蛋白質(zhì)。主要分為4個功能區(qū)域:外顯子1編碼N端的轉(zhuǎn)錄激活區(qū)域(N-transcriptional activation domain NTD),外顯子2和外顯子3編碼DNA結(jié)合區(qū)域(DNA binding domain DBD)的兩個鋅指結(jié)構(gòu),外顯子4編碼鉸鏈區(qū),其中包含部分的AR核定位信號和配基結(jié)合區(qū)域(Ligand binding domain LBD)的前兩個α-螺旋,外顯子5~8編碼LBD的其余部分[1]。
1.2雄激素受體的蛋白質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)
AR屬于核蛋白,AR長度的變化是因為在氨基末端的多聚谷氨酰胺和多聚甘氨酸長度的多態(tài)變化造成的。其理論相對分子量是98 kDa,但在SDS-PAGE中表現(xiàn)為相對分子量為110~112 kDa,通過SDS-PAGE證明分子量是110 kDa的AR蛋白很快會被磷酸化[2],用Western blot 觀察到另一分子量為112kDa的AR蛋白質(zhì)條帶的存在[3]。在一些組織中也觀察到分子量大約是87kDa的AR翻譯產(chǎn)物[4],生理作用尚不清楚。
2雄激素受體的作用機(jī)理
2.1基因組作用機(jī)理
雄激素受體屬于核受體超家族,是一種配體依賴的轉(zhuǎn)錄調(diào)節(jié)因子。未活化的AR主要存在于細(xì)胞漿中,并通過配基結(jié)合區(qū)域與熱休克蛋白(Heat shock proteins hsps)等伴侶蛋白分子結(jié)合,這種結(jié)合能使受體處于能與配基結(jié)合的最佳狀態(tài)但無轉(zhuǎn)錄活性;當(dāng)AR與雄激素結(jié)合后,AR與hsps解離并發(fā)生構(gòu)象改變,繼而發(fā)生進(jìn)一步磷酸化,同二聚體化,通過核定位信號的介導(dǎo)移位到核內(nèi);在核中AR與DNA上特定的雄激素反應(yīng)元件(Androgen responsive element ARE)相結(jié)合,ARE的特點是由6個核苷酸半位點共有序列5’-TGTTCT-3’間隔3個任意核苷酸,位于AR靶基因的啟動子或增強(qiáng)子區(qū)域,在AR的輔助因子作用下,與轉(zhuǎn)錄中介因子(Transcriptional intermediary factors TIFs)及基礎(chǔ)轉(zhuǎn)錄因子等相互作用,最終通過調(diào)控多種基因的表達(dá)來介導(dǎo)雄激素的作用。目前,雄激素受體調(diào)控真核基因表達(dá)的研究主要集中在轉(zhuǎn)錄起始階段,而對翻譯階段的研究較少。
雄激素是影響AR表達(dá)及功能的最主要因素,雄激素可以作用于雄激素受體的不同環(huán)節(jié),包括調(diào)節(jié)受體數(shù)量、活性及代謝等等,且這種調(diào)節(jié)作用具有組織和細(xì)胞特異性,具體包括以下幾方面:
雄激素能調(diào)節(jié)ARmRNA和AR蛋白表達(dá)水平,但是雄激素對AR表達(dá)的作用是復(fù)雜的,原因可能主要與細(xì)胞類型和作用時間有關(guān)。
研究證明雄激素正向調(diào)節(jié)AR的表達(dá),有研究證明大鼠或小鼠去勢后前列腺ARmRNA和AR蛋白表達(dá)減少,用DHT治療后AR表達(dá)可恢復(fù)到正常水平[5]。Kerr等[6]的研究證明去勢誘導(dǎo)大鼠海馬ARmRNA降低,Michel等[7]觀察到大鼠去勢后,股四頭肌AR水平隨著時間延長顯著降低。Brandsteffer等[8]在腎、腦、附睪等器官中也發(fā)現(xiàn)雄激素下降下調(diào)ARmRNA的表達(dá)。而外源性補(bǔ)充睪酮可提高ARmRNA和蛋白表達(dá)[9],用DHT處理人造骨細(xì)胞系后上調(diào)ARmRNA表達(dá),明顯提高AR的數(shù)量[10]。
然而也有研究者觀察到去勢后大鼠前列腺ARmRNA反而提高了,給去勢動物補(bǔ)充睪酮可降低AR表達(dá)到正常水平[11]。去勢后機(jī)體內(nèi)低雄激素水平不僅可降低內(nèi)源性雄激素與AR結(jié)合,在24h內(nèi)可誘導(dǎo)大鼠ARmRNA表達(dá)增加,而且完全可被外源性注射DHT所逆轉(zhuǎn)[12]。諸多體外試驗結(jié)果:雄激素處理LNCaP細(xì)胞或者人體乳腺癌細(xì)胞持續(xù)48h或更長時間可導(dǎo)致ARmRNA水平明顯降低[13-14],建議雄激素下調(diào)AR表達(dá)可能限制雄激素在這些細(xì)胞類型中的反應(yīng)。
也有研究報道雄激素上調(diào)或下調(diào)AR表達(dá)取決于雄激素的作用水平:在血小板和巨核細(xì)胞系中,1-10 nmol/L的低濃度睪酮可以上調(diào)AR表達(dá),而濃度達(dá)100 nmol/L的睪酮則下調(diào)AR水平[10]。
有關(guān)雄激素影響AR代謝及功能的報道較少。雄激素存在時,AR降解速度明顯減慢,是無雄激素存在時降解速度的1/6,雄激素促進(jìn)AR向核內(nèi)移位,在雄激素作用下,可以提高AR水平,同時活化狀態(tài)的AR也增加,約為無雄激素作用下AR活化水平的2~4倍[15]。雄激素存在促進(jìn)胞漿內(nèi)AR向核內(nèi)移位,提高核內(nèi)AR水平[16]。用放射性同位素標(biāo)記的正磷酸鹽作為代謝標(biāo)記,證明AR是一種磷酸化蛋白質(zhì),并且在雄激素R1881作用下,提高AR的磷酸化水平[17];同樣有研究證明小鼠大腦皮層AR的磷酸化水平經(jīng)雄激素處理后升高了[18]。
2.2非基因組作用機(jī)制
大量雄激素非依賴性前列腺癌、剝奪雄激素治療后效果不明顯或復(fù)發(fā)的病人前列腺癌組織中,AR和雄激素作用的靶基因仍高表達(dá),提示缺乏雄激素或雄激素水平較低時,AR信號途徑仍發(fā)揮功能,AR除了受雄激素調(diào)控,可能還存在其它的調(diào)控機(jī)理[19-20]。
近年來研究發(fā)現(xiàn)睪酮不僅是通過細(xì)胞內(nèi)受體的經(jīng)典途徑發(fā)揮作用,而且它還可以通過細(xì)胞膜上的受體經(jīng)非基因組途徑起作用[21]。在卵母細(xì)胞、骨骼肌細(xì)胞、成骨細(xì)胞都報道了AR的非基因組途徑,與基因組途徑相比,非基因組作用的特點是快速的,持續(xù)時間從幾秒至一小時,與細(xì)胞膜相關(guān)的信號途徑相互作用[22]。非基因組效應(yīng)的結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)是AR與細(xì)胞質(zhì)中不同信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑的蛋白相互作用[23],與配基誘導(dǎo)的配基結(jié)合域的構(gòu)象變化或氨基末端的間接變化密切相關(guān),然而這些結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)相互作用的細(xì)節(jié)部分仍不清楚。雄激素的非基因組作用在功能上涉及了激酶信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑的快速激活或細(xì)胞內(nèi)鈣離子水平發(fā)生改變。
有研究證明一些生長因子可能直接在AR的雄激素結(jié)合區(qū)域改變AR的磷酸化狀態(tài)或通過改變AR共調(diào)因子的磷酸化來調(diào)節(jié)AR信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑[24],表皮生長因子(EGF)家族、轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子β(TGFβ)、白介素6(IL-6)、角質(zhì)化生長因子(KGF)、富含脯氨酸的酪氨酸激酶2(Pyk2)都可通過不同的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑調(diào)節(jié)AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性,或提高AR對低水平雄激素的敏感性[25-27]。現(xiàn)已證實不同信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑中的蛋白激酶,包括MAPK、PKB/Akt、PKA、PKC可通過磷酸化AR或AR共活化因子(TIF2、SRC1)的絲氨酸或蘇氨酸殘基來調(diào)節(jié)AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[25-28]。
較多的研究顯示MAPK不僅能直接磷酸化AR,而且還可以磷酸化SRC家族的共活化因子SRC-1、TIF2、SRC-3,通過SRC-1、SRC-3等共活化因子的磷酸化刺激CBP/p300的募集,募集磷酸化的SRC/CBP共活化因子復(fù)合物來提高AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[32-34]。
EGF受體家族的酪氨酸激酶erbB2/Her2過度表達(dá)可以刺激AR磷酸化,有研究報道指出Her2可通過PI3K和MAPK兩條途徑來提高AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄激活,Her2通過PI3K途徑的Akt與AR直接結(jié)合,在氨基末端的絲氨酸213和LBD的絲氨酸791兩個位點磷酸化AR,減少AR與共活化因子ARA70之間的相互作用,導(dǎo)致AR轉(zhuǎn)錄活性下降,抑制PI3K可以提高AR共活化因子的活性從而提高AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[28,31]。Fujimoto等[32]的研究則顯示Her2對AR轉(zhuǎn)錄活性的作用是部分通過MAPK途徑,過度表達(dá)的Her2刺激AR與共活化因子ARA70、ARA55相互作用,提高AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性。
許多其它的酪氨酸激酶,包括Src、FAK和Etk/BMX,在IL-6和bombesin刺激下,參與激活并調(diào)節(jié)AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[33]。
近年來也有研究提示IGF-1和IGF-IR可能通過提高AR共調(diào)因子的表達(dá)或活化來調(diào)節(jié)AR活性:血液中高水平的IGF-1直接刺激并提高AR活性[34],還有研究顯示IDE是調(diào)節(jié)AR轉(zhuǎn)錄活性的輔助刺激因子,IGF-1通過調(diào)節(jié)IDE結(jié)合AR的能力來調(diào)節(jié)AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[35]。Lin等[28]的研究第一次報道IGF-1信號途徑直接影響AR功能的機(jī)理在于改變AR磷酸化,并證明在LNCaP細(xì)胞中IGF-1對AR活性的作用是雙相性的:低傳代數(shù)抑制AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性而高傳代數(shù)提高AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性,并且描述IGF-1在絲氨酸210和790兩個位點磷酸化AR。Gioeli等[36]的研究說明即使缺乏雄激素,IGF-1仍可誘導(dǎo)AR的轉(zhuǎn)錄激活,機(jī)理是AR磷酸化的改變或者是AR共調(diào)因子的重新募集,或者是兩者的共同作用仍需進(jìn)一步確定。在原發(fā)性和轉(zhuǎn)移性腫瘤中IGF-IR均可通過PI3K途徑介導(dǎo)并激活A(yù)R的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[37]。
一些生長因子除了作用于共調(diào)因子,還通過其它非核受體轉(zhuǎn)錄因子來調(diào)節(jié)AR轉(zhuǎn)錄活性,例如:TGFβ刺激Smad轉(zhuǎn)錄因子磷酸化和核轉(zhuǎn)運[38],IL-6可能調(diào)節(jié)STAT蛋白的轉(zhuǎn)錄[39]。Smad和STAT轉(zhuǎn)錄因子的成員能與AR相互作用調(diào)節(jié)AR轉(zhuǎn)錄活性。
也有研究顯示AR非基因組機(jī)制也要求雄激素的存在[40]。即使在去勢男性的雄激素非依賴性前列腺癌組織中,仍能觀察到納摩爾水平的雄激素[41]。剝奪雄激素治療時,仍有少量雄激素存在于復(fù)發(fā)的前列腺組織,這種低水平雄激素的存在可以解釋AR在核內(nèi)定位和通過某些信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑促進(jìn)AR轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[42]。
2.3在骨骼肌中的作用機(jī)制
與其它組織、尤其是生殖組織相比,骨骼肌中AR表達(dá)水平比較低,骨骼肌中AR主要分布在肌源性衛(wèi)星細(xì)胞、成纖維細(xì)胞及肌管中,而肌源性衛(wèi)星細(xì)胞可能是雄激素直接作用的靶細(xì)胞。
不同的肌肉對雄激素反應(yīng)不同,實驗結(jié)果顯示:肛提肌中AR蛋白含量明顯高于趾長伸肌,這些結(jié)果都顯示了對雄激素敏感的肛提肌中比其它相對的對雄激素不敏感的骨骼肌中包含更多的AR蛋白[43],原因在于:在肛提肌和趾長伸肌中,在肌纖維細(xì)胞、成纖維細(xì)胞、上皮細(xì)胞等不同細(xì)胞類型中都可以觀察到AR表達(dá),但在肛提肌肌纖維中觀察到AR-IR的百分比10倍于趾長伸肌,而兩種肌肉成纖維細(xì)胞中AR-IR的比例是相等的,建議在不同肌肉中AR蛋白表達(dá)的不同主要是因為在肌纖維中AR蛋白表達(dá)量不同導(dǎo)致的[44]。Douglas A.還在研究中發(fā)現(xiàn):60-90天齡的SD雄性大鼠肛提肌和趾長伸肌中ARmRNA水平是相同的,但肛提肌中AR蛋白含量明顯高于趾長伸肌,兩種肌肉中AR蛋白含量不同可能是AR蛋白翻譯效率和轉(zhuǎn)換不同導(dǎo)致的[44]。
AR表達(dá)增加導(dǎo)致骨骼肌肥大。臨床研究顯示用氧甲氫龍治療5天后明顯提高ARmRNA表達(dá)和肌肉蛋白質(zhì)合成[45],T可能通過增加AR表達(dá)而提高肌肉蛋白質(zhì)合成,誘導(dǎo)骨骼肌細(xì)胞肥大,T-AR信號途徑增加肌肉蛋白質(zhì)合成、肌肉重量、瘦體重和肌肉力量[46]。Lee DK.等用轉(zhuǎn)染AR的骨骼肌肌原細(xì)胞C2C12細(xì)胞說明T-AR信號途徑提高了myogenin表達(dá),促進(jìn)骨骼肌肌原細(xì)胞分化,但不增加初級生肌調(diào)節(jié)因子MyoD的水平[47]。
睪酮促進(jìn)骨骼肌蛋白質(zhì)合成的可能機(jī)理是睪酮通過AR激活I(lǐng)GF-1。Urban etal.的研究顯示對性腺機(jī)能減退的老年男性補(bǔ)充外源性睪酮可提高肌肉蛋白質(zhì)合成和力量,同時伴有肌肉中IGF-1mRNA含量升高[48]。睪酮是因為增加循環(huán)中IGF-1的含量提高了肌肉的生長[49],睪酮通過AR調(diào)節(jié),使IGF-1mRNA含量升高,可能是提高肌肉蛋白質(zhì)合成必需的[50]。雄激素減少的青年肌肉中IGF-1mRNA含量減少,導(dǎo)致肌肉萎縮[51]。AR、IGF-1mRNA增加與肌肉增加明顯相關(guān)[52]。睪酮治療后使閹羊肌肉局部IGF-1增多,而IGF-1增加與肌肉重量增加明顯相關(guān)[53]。
雄激素不僅通過AR促進(jìn)IGF-1轉(zhuǎn)錄激活,還會促進(jìn)IGF-IR的轉(zhuǎn)錄激活。在前列腺上皮細(xì)胞,雄激素可能是通過激活細(xì)胞質(zhì)中的Src-Raf-Ras-Map激酶途徑,激活ERK1/2 ,通過AR提高IGF-IR啟動子的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[40],促進(jìn)IGF-IR升高。另外,雄激素還可能刺激KFL6增加,KFL6通過與IGF-IR啟動子結(jié)合提高IGF-IR表達(dá)[54]。盡管對這些機(jī)理還存在爭議,但是這些研究都顯示雄激素信號是通過AR提高了IGF-IR的蛋白表達(dá),同時伴有IGF-IR磷酸化的提高,IGF-IR的變化提高了IGF的細(xì)胞增殖反應(yīng)。但這種機(jī)理是否存在于骨骼肌細(xì)胞還有待進(jìn)一步探討。
3低氧和運動對雄激素受體的作用
3.1低氧對雄激素受體的作用
未見低氧對人或動物體內(nèi)雄激素受體影響的報道,有研究報道了模擬腫瘤低氧對前列腺癌細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)基中AR含量和功能的作用[55]:在LNCaP細(xì)胞和外源性植入AR的DU145細(xì)胞中,低氧明顯提高AR與ARE的結(jié)合能力及AR靶基因-PSA的表達(dá)。低氧處理可以促進(jìn)AR轉(zhuǎn)位到核內(nèi)和AR募集到PSA的啟動子上。低氧可提高AR對極低含量雄激素刺激的敏感性,而且低氧對AR的刺激作用是依賴于雄激素的。總之,以上實驗結(jié)果提示:缺氧、復(fù)氧的變化刺激AR轉(zhuǎn)錄激活及對雄激素的敏感性。但Ghafar等[56]的研究卻報道了在進(jìn)行24 h持續(xù)低氧暴露后或24 h低氧處理后復(fù)氧,LNCaP細(xì)胞中AR蛋白水平和PSA都明顯下降了,說明24 h持續(xù)低氧暴露降低了AR含量和AR活性。
也有一些研究揭示了低氧提高AR功能的分子機(jī)理,很多證據(jù)顯示了低氧激活活性氧(reactive oxygen species ROS),ROS經(jīng)由PTK蛋白酪氨酸激酶刺激PI3K/PTEN和MAPK途徑[57],而MAPK信號途徑可明顯激活A(yù)R的轉(zhuǎn)錄激活活性[58]。William Conrad等[59]利用PC12細(xì)胞探討低氧對MAPK信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑的作用:5%低氧暴露明顯刺激p38 、p38 的激活和磷酸化,而低氧對JNK激酶的活性沒有作用;長時間低氧誘導(dǎo)了ERK1/2的激活和磷酸化。
3.2運動對雄激素受體的作用
運動負(fù)荷促進(jìn)肌肉形態(tài)和功能改變的機(jī)理在于:運動促進(jìn)血清合成激素的升高,血清激素通過調(diào)節(jié)受體的表達(dá)來促進(jìn)肌肉局部的生長反應(yīng)。現(xiàn)已證實運動訓(xùn)練造成的骨骼肌肥大和肥大效應(yīng)的維持與運動導(dǎo)致的骨骼肌AR水平升高密切相關(guān)。
動物和人體實驗均表明運動導(dǎo)致骨骼肌形態(tài)和功能發(fā)生改變時,往往伴有骨骼肌AR水平的變化。而且不同訓(xùn)練方式對不同類型骨骼肌及其AR水平的影響是不同的。大鼠在力量訓(xùn)練后Ⅱ型肌中AR含量明顯升高了[60],Marcas報道了人體在一次急性離心或向心運動負(fù)荷后,ARmRNA含量明顯升高了,同時顯示了大強(qiáng)度力量訓(xùn)練后AR含量是上升的[61]。Michael等[7]報道了耐力和阻力訓(xùn)練可導(dǎo)致趾長伸肌和比目魚肌中AR水平的不同變化,分析原因認(rèn)為不同運動過程中對不同肌肉的募集程度不同,由于運動中血流不同,不同肌肉中獲得的雄激素數(shù)量不同,所以運動對大鼠骨骼肌形態(tài)和AR水平的影響取決于骨骼肌的肌纖維類型。盡管運動對骨骼肌及其AR的影響是顯著的,但這種影響的規(guī)律和內(nèi)在機(jī)制尚需進(jìn)一步探討。
運動不僅通過改變AR含量,還通過改變AR活性來調(diào)節(jié)骨骼肌發(fā)生適應(yīng)性改變。近年來研究證明運動可以通過MAPK途徑影響AR的活性。與運動相關(guān)聯(lián)的生長因子、細(xì)胞因子、缺氧、胞內(nèi)鈣離子的變化和機(jī)械應(yīng)力等都可以刺激MAPK信號級聯(lián)。許多學(xué)者的研究從MAPK信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑探討了骨骼肌對運動的適應(yīng)機(jī)制:運動可激活ERKs、JNKs和p38MAPK途徑。運動后骨骼肌中p38MAPK和JNK出現(xiàn)一次性升高,尤其是p38MAPKγ的活性明顯升高[62];動物實驗和人體實驗都表明一過性耐力和力量訓(xùn)練后,骨骼肌細(xì)胞p38MAPK分子被激活[63];也有研究表明8周的耐力訓(xùn)練使骨骼肌發(fā)生了適應(yīng)性改變的同時,骨骼肌中p38活性明顯增高[64]。
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[編輯:李壽榮]