顏 晨,余德才,江 勇(.常州市第一人民醫院肝膽外科,江蘇常州 3003;.南京大學醫學院附屬鼓樓醫院肝膽外科,江蘇南京 0000)
癌細胞代謝相關的耐藥干預方法的研究進展
顏 晨1,余德才2,江 勇1
(1.常州市第一人民醫院肝膽外科,江蘇常州 213003;2.南京大學醫學院附屬鼓樓醫院肝膽外科,江蘇南京 210000)
癌細胞的代謝與正常細胞有很大差別,癌細胞主要由無氧糖酵解供能,其脂肪酸及谷氨酰胺的合成也都高于正常細胞。而癌細胞代謝中的Warburg效應、脂肪酸合成及谷氨酰胺降解失調中一些關鍵酶的活性與癌細胞耐藥密切相關。例如,乳酸脫氫酶A與乳腺癌的紫杉醇/曲妥珠單抗耐藥相關;脂肪酸合成酶與乳腺癌的多西紫杉醇/曲妥珠單抗/多柔比星耐藥相關;谷氨酰胺酶與胃癌的順鉑耐藥相關等。因此,針對這些與癌細胞耐藥相關的代謝途徑的治療方法,與化療藥物聯合應用,可能會克服癌細胞耐藥。本文綜述癌細胞代謝與癌癥耐藥的關系,即通過抑制代謝過程中關鍵酶的活性來克服癌細胞耐藥,最終提高癌癥治療療效。
癌癥;細胞代謝;抗藥性
癌癥的藥物治療(包括化療及靶向藥物治療)是目前抗癌癥治療的最常用措施。然而,藥物對癌癥的作用僅在治療初期有效,隨著治療周期的延長,都不可避免地出現耐藥現象,使得許多抗癌癥藥物失敗,癌癥復發,成為癌癥治療中最難克服的難題[1]。因此,研究癌細胞耐藥的機制,提高治療療效,具有重要的臨床意義。自從Warburg發現癌細胞與正常細胞存在顯著的代謝差異以來,許多學者將癌癥看做是一個“代謝疾病”,并且針對癌癥代謝特點改善癌癥治療已成為熱門話題[2-4]。大量實驗數據表明,癌細胞特有的代謝特點與癌細胞耐藥之間存在密切聯系,本文將對癌細胞代謝過程中主要的關鍵酶與耐藥間的關系及相應的機制作一綜述。
癌細胞的代謝特點和正常細胞有明顯的不同,即使在供氧充足的情況下,葡萄糖向乳酸轉換,而不是像正常細胞那樣經三羧酸循環由線粒體氧化磷酸化產生ATP。癌細胞的這種代謝特點稱為“Warburg效應”[5]。癌細胞以無氧糖酵解作為主要的能量獲取方式被認為是癌細胞一個重要特征。癌細胞不需外源性信號的刺激即可直接啟動細胞對營養物質的攝取[6]。癌細胞的這種特點有利于促進其快速增殖,還能增加過氧化物生成誘導DNA損傷加速基因突變率。即便是采用糖酵解這種效率較低的能量利用方式,癌細胞仍然可通過大量高速的糖酵解過程獲得足夠的ATP[7]。
除了依賴無氧糖酵解,癌細胞還有其他一些代謝特點,例如脂肪酸的從頭合成增加以及谷氨酰胺的代謝增強[8]。癌細胞通過大量的脂肪酸從頭合成獲得新的膜結構,其中包含一些特殊的脂類成分形成脂筏結構以促進細胞生長相關受體活化,一些脂類的中間產物如單酰輔酶A參與了生長因子受體的轉錄調控[9],一些循環脂類還能直接促進癌細胞的生長和轉移[10]。這些研究表明,癌細胞通過脂肪酸的從頭合成途徑,一方面促進細胞膜的形成,支持快速分裂,另一方面利用脂代謝中間產物或翻譯后修飾產物對促增殖和存活相關通路進行正向調控。有研究表明,谷氨酰胺代謝是癌細胞主要的氮源,并優先被癌細胞攝取[11]。腫瘤的生長和血谷氨酰胺濃度呈負相關。癌細胞能快速消耗大量谷氨酰胺,原因有二:其一,癌細胞運輸谷氨酰胺穿過血漿細胞膜的速度較非癌細胞快,如人肝癌細胞消耗谷氨酰胺的速度比正常細胞快5~10倍[12]。其二,癌細胞內谷氨酰胺酶(glutaminase,GLS)異常活躍,GLS是癌細胞谷氨酰胺降解的限速酶,將谷氨酰胺分解為谷氨酸和氨。
癌細胞的這些特點導致三大物質循環過程中關鍵酶的活性及表達量明顯不同于正常細胞。而這些酶代謝失調產生的中間產物可以促進癌細胞自身的生物合成[13]。并且在癌癥治療過程中和癌癥耐藥密切相關。
通常抗癌藥物是通過阻斷細胞增殖周期中重要的過程造成細胞不可逆的損傷或誘導細胞凋亡起作用的。其作用機制包括:①影響核酸合成。例如吉西他濱和5-氟尿嘧啶(5-fluorouracil,5-FU)分別通過抑制核糖核苷酸還原酶和胸苷酸合成酶而起作用。②影響蛋白合成。例如長春新堿通過干擾蛋白質代謝、抑制氨基酸在細胞膜的轉運而起作用。③直接破壞DNA。例如絲裂霉素通過與DNA形成交叉連接使細胞DNA解聚,以及引起DNA單鏈斷裂而起作用。④嵌入DNA中干擾模板作用。例如多柔比星及其家族藥物通過抑制拓撲異構酶干擾模板形成而起作用。⑤影響體內激素平衡。例如糖皮質激素通過影響體內腎上腺皮質激素的平衡而起作用[14]。
使用一定療程的化療藥物治療后,絕大多數癌癥患者都會出現的藥物耐受是導致癌癥治療失敗的最主要原因。癌癥耐藥基于癌細胞中單一或少數幾個位點的結構和功能發生改變,主要機制有:①細胞膜抑制藥物轉運、促進藥物外排;②細胞漿內藥物靶酶或代謝酶的活性改變;③細胞核內DNA修復功能增強[16];④細胞內與耐藥或抗凋亡相關的分子表達量升高等[15]。克服癌癥耐藥從而提高化療療效已成為當今研究的熱門話題。隨著對癌細胞代謝研究的深入,越來越多的實驗表明,癌細胞的代謝失調與腫瘤耐藥之間有重要的關聯。
大量證據表明,癌細胞代謝失調在癌癥治療過程中和癌癥耐藥密切相關。如乳酸脫氫酶A在乳腺癌的治療過程中與紫杉醇/曲妥珠單抗耐藥相關[17];丙酮酸脫氫酶激酶3在宮頸癌和結腸癌的治療過程中與低氧誘導的藥物耐藥有關[18];脂肪酸合成酶在乳腺癌的治療過程中與多西紫杉醇/曲妥珠單抗/多柔比星耐藥相關,以及在胰腺癌的治療過程中與吉西他濱和放療耐藥相關[19];GLS在胃癌的治療過程中與順鉑耐藥相關[20]。癌細胞代謝失調引起癌癥耐藥的分子機制極其復雜。例如,增強的糖酵解可生成更多的ATP和NADPH,而NADPH是一個重要的抗氧化劑,可抑制化療藥物誘導的氧化損傷,從而產生癌癥耐藥。其中高ATP水平在癌癥耐藥中也起著一定的作用。一方面,高ATP水平可激活ATP結合盒(ATP-binding cassette,ABC)轉運,從而增加藥物外排[21]。另一方面,高ATP水平還可上調低氧誘導因子1(hypoxia inducible factor-1,HIF-1)信號,誘導低氧相關的藥物耐受。HIF-1α又與藥物耐受密切相關。首先,HIF-1α可增強糖酵解過程中關鍵酶的活性,促進代謝由氧化磷酸化向糖酵解轉變,降低三羧酸循環途徑產生的活性氧(reactine oxygen species,ROS),防止DNA損傷,激活DNA修復和應激反應的途徑,抑制癌細胞凋亡[22-23]。其次,HIF-1α可促進細胞膜碳酸酐酶的表達,使細胞外環境酸化,引起細胞內外pH差值增加,這將會減少化療藥物的被動吸收量,促使活性藥物外排,從而不足以維持胞內抗癌藥物濃度[24]。最后,HIF-1α可促進抗凋亡信號基因表達。通過表達抗凋亡信號(生存素,Bcl-Xl和Mcl-1等)逃避化療藥物的殺傷作用[25]。
3.1 針對葡萄糖代謝酶
葡萄糖代謝是一個非常復雜的過程,它是細胞所需能量的主要來源,有一系列酶參與這一過程。其中一些關鍵酶,包括葡萄糖轉運體,己糖激酶(hexekinase,HK),乳酸脫氫酶(lactate dehydrogenase,LDH)以及丙酮酸脫氫酶激酶(pyruvate dehydrogenase,PDH)與癌癥耐藥有密切關系。
3.1.1 葡萄糖轉運體
葡萄糖通過胞膜從胞外轉運到胞內是葡萄糖代謝的第一限速步驟,主要由葡萄糖轉運蛋白(glucose transporters,GLUT)家族參與這一過程。在癌細胞中,經常可見GLUT家族代謝失調[26]。人類GLUT家族包括14種亞型(GLUT1~14 或SLC2A1~14)。WZB117是GLUT1的一種抑制劑,可通過抑制葡萄糖的攝取來抑制糖酵解過程,從而降低細胞內ATP水平。對于應用WZB117治療的癌癥患者,添加外源性ATP可降低WZB117的療效,提示降低癌細胞內ATP水平可能是WZB117抗癌治療的一個重要機制[27]。此外,WZB117還可誘導內質網應激反應,導致細胞周期停滯。WZB117和順鉑或紫杉醇聯合還可顯示出協同的抗癌效果[28]。在低氧條件下,GLUT1的抑制劑根皮素(phloretin)可顯著提高柔紅霉素的抗癌療效,并克服低氧引起的耐藥[29]。GLUT4參與多發性骨髓瘤(multiple myeloma,MM)細胞的葡萄糖攝取過程。而GLUT4的特異性抑制劑,利托那韋可降低Mcl-1蛋白的表達,從而抑制MM細胞對葡萄糖的攝取,進而誘導MM細胞凋亡。此外,利托那韋還可抑制初級骨髓瘤細胞的增殖,提高癌細胞對多柔比星的敏感性[30]。
3.1.2 己糖激酶
HK在糖酵解和細胞凋亡中均起重要作用。其抑制劑,如2-脫氧葡萄糖(2-deoxyglucose,2-DG)、3-溴丙酮酸(3-bromo-pyruvate,3-BrPA)和氯尼達明(lonidamine,LND)已用于早期臨床試驗,三者聯合抗癌癥的療效已有文獻詳細闡述[31]。2-DG作為葡萄糖的無毒類似物,可競爭性地抑制癌細胞對葡萄糖的攝取,從而降低細胞內ATP水平,抑制細胞分裂增殖周期,進而導致細胞凋亡[32]。在氧充足的條件下,2-DG還可誘導未折疊蛋白反應,引起下游的一些唯BH3域蛋白提前凋亡。唯BH3域蛋白是Bcl-2家族蛋白的一種,此外Bcl-2家族蛋白還包括抗凋亡成員(Bcl-2,Bcl-XL,Bcl-w,Mcl-1和A1)、促凋亡成員(Bax和Bak)。它們在癌癥的發生、發展、凋亡以及癌癥耐藥方面都起重要作用[33]。ABT-737和ABT-263都是Bcl-2的小分子抑制劑,有研究表明,聯合應用2-DG或LND可以促進ABT-263/ 737誘導的細胞凋亡[34-38]。其機制可從以下2方面闡述:①2-DG可激活AMP活化蛋白激酶以及抑制Mcl-1的轉化,從而降低Mcl-1的水平[34];②2-DG減弱Bak和Mcl-1的相互作用,進而增強了ABT-263/737從Mcl-1/Bcl-XL/Bak異源體中釋放Bak的作用,從而引起細胞凋亡[36]。表明2-DG-ABT-737聯合使用可以改善ABT-737耐藥。
曲妥珠單抗是一種針對ErbB2的人源化單克隆抗體,在治療ErbB2+的乳腺癌患者中有很好療效,但是大多數患者都會出現后天性曲妥珠單抗耐藥[36]。有研究表明,ErbB2的過度表達可促進糖酵解并增加癌細胞對糖酵解抑制劑的敏感性[37]。2-DG/曲妥珠單抗聯合可顯著抑制糖酵解,從而抑制曲妥珠單抗敏感/耐藥的乳腺癌細胞的生長。這些結果表明,2-DG可改善曲妥珠單抗耐藥,增強曲妥珠單抗治療ErbB2+乳腺癌的療效。
3-BrPA是一種作用于HKⅡ的抑制劑,是一些特定癌癥化療的敏感藥物[38]。3-BrPA可抑制細胞內ATP的產生,從而降低ABC的活性,抑制藥物外排,維持細胞內較高藥物濃度,達到不斷殺滅癌細胞的目的。還有研究表明,3-BrPA可以增強柔紅霉素和多柔比星的細胞毒作用,聯合應用柔紅霉素和3-BrPA可顯著抑制MM小鼠腫瘤的生長[39]。此外,3-BrPA還可通過逆轉耐藥表型機制,改善奧沙利鉑和5-FU等化療藥物引起的耐藥[40-41]。
3.1.3 乳酸脫氫酶A(LDHA)
LDHA催化糖酵解途徑的最后一步反應,將丙酮酸和NADH轉化成乳酸和NAD+,對腫瘤的生長起關鍵作用。抑制癌細胞中LDHA的活性可促進細胞轉變為有氧呼吸,從而降低癌細胞在低氧環境下的增殖能力,并且通過升高ROS水平促進細胞凋亡[42-43]。另外,NAD+生成抑制劑FK866和FX11聯合應用在異種移植模型中還可使淋巴瘤得到治愈[44]。
眾所周知,熱休克因子1(heat shock factor 1,HSF1)的基本功能是調節熱休克反應,但最近的研究指出,HSF1的非熱休克功能對于癌癥的發生發展同樣重要[46]。Dai等[45]報道HSF1可增加癌細胞對葡萄糖的攝取,增加乳酸生成量以及提高LDHA活性。HSF1是真核生物熱休克反應的主要調節因子。有研究表明,上調HSF1和LDHA可促進糖酵解,產生癌癥耐藥[19]。
3.1.4 丙酮酸脫氫酶
PDH是細胞進行三羧酸循環生成ATP的限速酶,催化丙酮酸轉化為乙酰輔酶A。PDH激酶(PDH kinase,PDK)可使PDH磷酸化并抑制其活性,此時它限制了丙酮酸進入線粒體,導致三羧酸循環不能正常進行。PDK有4種亞型(PDK1~4),而其中PDK3在低氧條件下腫瘤細胞的糖酵解過程中起最主要作用。低氧介導的PDK3過多表達顯著抑制了癌細胞凋亡,增加了癌細胞對順鉑或紫杉醇的耐藥[47-48]。此外,結腸癌患者組織中升高的PDK3水平與癌癥的嚴重程度密切相關,往往有較差的預后[49]。
二氯乙酸(dichloroacetate,DCA)是PDK的一種抑制劑,可使PDK失活從而活化PDH,使細胞代謝由糖酵解轉變為有氧呼吸。在臨床試驗中,DCA和奧美拉唑的聯合已顯示出協同抗癌療效[50]。DCA,奧美拉唑和他莫昔芬的聯合可完全阻斷纖維肉瘤細胞的增殖,而不影響人類正常成纖維細胞的增殖。DCA還可通過誘導更多的線粒體介導的細胞凋亡途徑,增加5-氟尿嘧啶的抗癌療效[51]。此外,DCA還可增強放療的療效。曹等[52]報道,DCA和Bcl-2抑制劑協同作用可使野生型以及Bcl-2過度表達型癌細胞對放療更加敏感。
3.2 針對谷氨酰胺代謝
谷氨酰胺在細胞增殖和能量代謝過程中發揮重要作用。谷氨酰胺分解包括2個步驟:首先在GLS的催化下轉化為谷氨酸,然后由谷氨酸脫氫酶催化轉化為α-酮戊二酸。哺乳動物中有腎型GLS (GLS1)和肝型GLS(GLS2)。利用13C同位素示蹤代謝實驗表明,癌細胞利用谷氨酰胺分解提供碳源參與三羧酸循環,而產生的中間體被用作原料參與其他的生物合成過程[53]。谷氨酰胺和亮氨酸聯合誘導谷氨酰胺分解可激活哺乳動物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin 1,mTOR1)信號,從而觸發細胞分裂增殖和抑制自噬。mTOR信號通路參與高度惡性產AFP型胃癌(AFPGC)的順鉑耐藥[54]。提示增強的谷氨酰胺代謝可能與順鉑耐藥有關。
二甲基-2-[5-苯基乙酰基-1,2,4-噻二唑-2-基]乙基硫醚(BPTES),是一種GLS1抑制劑,可抑制癌細胞在有氧條件下的增殖。通過BPTES抑制GLS1的活性,可抑制攜帶異檸檬酸脫氫酶1(isocitrate dehydrogenase,IDH1)基因突變型膠質細胞瘤細胞的生長。也降低谷氨酰胺和α-酮戊二酸水平,增加糖酵解中間體,從而提高突變型IDH1患者的治療療效[55]。
西羅莫司是一種mTORC1抑制劑,可增強順鉑治療AFPGC的療效[54]。通過NVP-BEZ235 (PI3K/mTOR抑制劑)抑制mTORC1,可提高化療藥物諸如環磷酰胺、糖胞苷及地塞米松治療T細胞急性淋巴細胞白血病的療效。此外,NVP-BEZ235還可敏化長春新堿耐藥型Jurkat細胞,這表明通過抑制mTORC1的活性有可能逆轉化療耐藥[56]。谷氨酰胺分解會激活mTORC1信號,而應用GLS抑制劑或小干擾(siRNA)抑制谷氨酰胺分解,可降低mTORC1活性,從而使癌細胞對化療藥物敏感[57]。
3.3 針對脂肪酸代謝
脂肪酸可通過從頭合成及氧化分解過程為機體提供能量支持。在癌細胞中,脂肪酸的從頭合成明顯上調,其中發揮主要作用的是脂肪酸合成酶。脂肪酸合成酶在大多數癌癥中都高表達,且與癌癥較差的預后密切相關。G28UCM是FASN的一種抑制劑,可明顯縮小實驗動物的移植瘤體積,且不會出現厭食、體質量下降等不良反應[58]。在體外針對曲妥珠單抗耐藥細胞株(AU565T)及拉帕替尼耐藥細胞株(AU65LR)的實驗中,G28UCM和曲妥珠單抗、拉帕替尼聯合使用可表現出良好的協同作用[59]。
癌細胞通過改變自身物質代謝特點,如增強有氧糖酵解,增加脂肪酸從頭合成以及谷氨酰胺代謝來滿足自身對能量和生物合成的需求,這些特點可以促進癌細胞增殖,降低藥物誘導的細胞凋亡,從而產生癌癥耐藥。這些事實表明,癌細胞的代謝失調和癌癥耐藥有密切的關系,以癌細胞代謝過程中關鍵酶作為靶點,可用來改善癌癥耐藥從而提高化療藥物對癌癥患者的療效。然而,針對代謝失調引起癌癥耐藥的分子機制尚未完全清楚,仍需進一步研究。聯合癌癥化療和抗代謝治療,結合個體化治療理念,將有助于進一步提高癌癥患者的療效。
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(本文編輯:喬虹)
Intervention with drug resistance related to metabolism of cancer cells:advances in research
YAN Chen1,YU De-cai2,JIANG Yong1
(1.Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery,the First People’s Hospital of Changzhou,Changzhou 213003,China;2.Hepatobiliary Surgery,Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital,Medical College,Nanjing University,Nanjing 210000,China)
The metabolic properties of cancer cells diverge significantly from those of normal cells. Energy production in cancer cells is abnormally dependent on aerobic glycolysis.In addition,cancer cells have other metabolic characteristics,such as increasing fatty acid synthesis and glutamine metabolism.Emerging evidences show that many key enzymes in dysregulated Warburg-like glucose metabolism,fatty acid synthesis and glutaminolysis are linked to drug resistance in cancer treatment. For example,lactate dehydrogenase A contributes to paclitaxel/trastuzuma resistance in breast cancer,fatty acid synthase is linked to docetaxel/trastuzumab/adriamycin resistance in breast cancer,and glutaminolysis is linked to cisplatin resistance in gastric cancer.Therefore,targeting cellular metabolism may improve the response to cancer therapeutics,and the combination of chemotherapeutic drugs with cellular metabolism inhibitors may overcome drug resistance in cancer therapy.This review discussed the relationship between dysregulated cellular metabolism and chemotherapy resistance,and the way in which targeting of metabolic enzymes can help overcome the resistance to cancer therapy or enhance the efficacy of common therapeutic agents.
cancer;cellular metabolism;drug resistance
The project supported by Program for the Talents in Science and Education of Jiangsu Province;National Natural Science Foundation of China(30972904/H1617);and the Major Science and Technology Projects of Health Department of Changzhou City(ZD201305)
JIANG Yong,Phn:13809079991,E-mail:yjiang8888@hotmail.com
R963,R979.1
A
1000-3002-(2015)06-0986-07
10.3867/j.issn.1000-3002.2015.06.017
江蘇省興衛工程重點人才項目;國家自然科學基金(30972904/H1617);常州市衛生局重大科技項目(ZD201305)
顏 晨,男,碩士研究生,主要從事肝癌代謝方面的研究。
江 勇,E-mail:yjiang8888@hotmail.com,Phn:13809079991
(2014-12-29接受日期:2015-08-25)