中華思想文化術語(連載四)

中華思想文化術語(連載四)

1.良知 /liánɡzhī/

Liangzhi(Conscience)

人天生所具有的道德本性與道德上的認識和實踐能力。“良知”一詞最初由孟子提出，認為人不加思慮便能知道的便是“良知”?！傲贾钡木唧w內容包括親愛其父母、尊敬其兄長。而親愛父母是仁，尊敬兄長是義。“良知”說是孟子性善論的重要內容。明代的王守仁提出“致良知”，進一步發展了孟子的“良知”說。他認為，“良知”就是天理，一切事物及其規律都包含在“良知”之中。將“良知”擴充到底，即能達到對一切道德真理的認識和實踐。

Humans are born with innate conscience and the ability to know and act upon it. The termliangzhi(良知) was first used by Mencius，who believed that what man knew by instinct wasliangzhi(knowledge of goodness). The term includesren(仁)，i.e. love for one’s parents andyi(義)，i.e. respect for one’s elder brothers. The concept is an important component of Mencius’ belief in the innate goodness of human nature. The Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Shouren raised the idea of “attainingliangzhi.” He extended the Mencius’liangzhito mean the principles of heaven，maintaining that all things under heaven and their laws were covered byliangzhi. Withliangzhibeing extended to its fullest (through self-cultivation and moral practice)，it is possible to know and put in practice all moral truths.

引例 Citations：

所不慮而知者，良知也。(《孟子·盡心上》)

(人所不加思慮便能知曉的，就是良知。)

What is known without thinking is the innate knowledge of goodness. (Mencius)

天理即是良知。(《傳習錄》卷下)

(天理就是良知。)

Principles of heaven and conscience are the same in essence. (RecordsofGreatLearning)

2.六經皆史 /liù jīng jiē shǐ/

The Six Confucian Classics Are All About History.

這是古代學者提出的一個重要的學術思想命題，認為“六經”(《易》《書》《詩》《禮》《樂》《春秋》)反映的是夏、商、周三代社會、政治等現實情況的歷史文本，而不是圣人刻意留下的義理說教。系統闡發這一命題的代表人物是清代學者章學誠。這一命題動搖了儒家經典的神圣地位，標志著中國史學趨向自覺與獨立。

The Six Confucian Classics areTheBookofChanges，TheBookofHistory，TheBookofSongs，TheBookofRites，TheBookofMusic，andTheSpringandAutumnAnnals. An important proposition put forward by scholars of late imperial China was that those are all historical texts. According to these scholars，the Six Classics are all concerned with the social and political realities of the Xia，Shang，and Zhou dynasties rather than the teachings left by ancient sages. Zhang Xuecheng of the Qing Dynasty was the representative scholar to systematically expound this proposition. This view challenged the sacred status of the classics of Confucianism and marked a self-conscious and independent trend in Chinese historiography.

引例 Citation:

學者崇奉六經，以謂圣人立言以垂教，不知三代盛時，各守專官之掌故，而非圣人有意作為文章也。(章學誠《文史通義·史釋》)

(學者推崇六經，認為圣人著書立說，是為了給后人留下垂示教訓，卻不知道那實際上是夏、商、周三代興盛之時，各司其職的官員寫下的制度和史實，而不是圣人有意撰寫的典籍。)

Scholars worship the Six Classics and say that they are the words of sages set down to teach later generations. They do not realize that the classics are the regulations and historical facts recorded by officials in the flourishing days of the three dynasties of Xia，Shang，and Zhou. They are not the writings of ancient sages. (Zhang Xuecheng:GeneralPrinciplesofLiteratureandHistory)

3.六義 /liùyì/

The Six Basic Elements

漢代學者從治理國家與社會教化角度總結《詩經》所具有的六方面意義：風是用來闡發圣賢思想對民風的教化作用；賦是直陳時政善惡；比是以類比方式委婉批評時政的不足；興是借助其他美好事物來鼓勵善行；雅是宣揚正道并作為后世的準則；頌是歌頌和推廣美德。“六義”原本是儒家用來闡述《詩經》創作手法的術語，后來也用它來說明一切詩歌的創作方式以及文學批評的基本原則。

The six basic elements were drawn fromTheBookofSongsby scholars of the Han Dynasty to promote the state’s governance，social enlightenment，and education. The six are:feng(ballad)，which offers an insight into the influence of a sage’s thinking on ordinary folk customs；fu(narrative)，which directly states the goodness or evilness of court politics；bi(analogy)，which criticizes mildly the inadequacies of court politics by comparing one thing with another；xing(association)，which extols a virtue by making an indirect reference to some other laudable thing；ya(court hymn)，which shows the proper way of acquitting oneself as a norm for posterity to follow；andsong(eulogy)，which praises and promotes virtue. All the six elements were originally used by Confucian scholars to expound on the creative techniques inTheBookofSongs. Later，they were used to emphasize creative styles of all works of poetry. They also served as essential principles of literary criticism.

引例 Citation:

風言賢圣治道之遺化也。賦之言鋪，直鋪陳今之政教善惡。比，見今之失，不敢斥言，取比類以言之。興，見今之美，嫌于媚諛，取善事以喻勸之。雅，正也，言今之正者，以為后世法。頌之言誦也，容也，誦今之德，廣以美之。(《周禮·春官·大師》鄭玄注)

(風是從留存的民風習俗了解圣賢的治國之道。賦是鋪陳的意思，即直接陳述那些反映時政得失的事情。比是看到時政弊端，但不敢直接指斥，而以類比的方式委婉指出。興是看到當時政治清明，擔心直接贊美好似阿諛諂媚，因此借其他美好事物加以曉諭和勉勵。雅是“正”的意思，講述當今正確的做法，作為后世遵循的準則。頌是“誦”[贊頌]和“容”[儀容]的意思，即通過贊頌儀容來贊美當今君主的品德，并且推廣這種美德。)

A ballad tells how to run the country via the customs and folkways that have survived through the ages. A narrative flatly states the positive and negative things in state affairs. An analogy is made when one sees a vice in court politics but dares not directly point it out；it hints at the vice by describing something similar to it. An association，in view of the clean and honest governance of the time，voices its appreciation and support through borrowing from some other commendable thing，in order to avoid arousing suspicions of unscrupulous flattery. A court hymn is related to propriety，describing something rightly done and setting norms for people of later generations to observe. A eulogy praises and promotes a reigning monarch’s virtues by admiring his elegant，upright manner. (Zheng Xuan:AnnotationsonTheRitesofZhou)

4.美刺 /měi cì/

Extolment and Satirical Criticism

贊美與諷刺批評。用于文學藝術領域，主要指用詩歌對統治者的品德、政令和作為進行贊美或諷刺批評。孔子最早指出“詩可以怨”，強調《詩經》具有抒發不滿情緒的功用，確定了詩歌創作的基本功能。漢代的詩學則迎合統治者的需要，突出詩歌歌功頌德的功能。漢代詩學作品《毛詩序》和鄭玄《詩譜序》將“美刺”確立為詩歌批評的基本原則之一，使之成為后世詩人和作家的自覺追求，是他們參與政治、干預社會生活的一種方式，從而構成中國文學的基本功用與重要特色。

This literary term is used in poetry to comment on a ruler’s moral character，policies，decrees，and performance，either in praise or criticism. Confucius was the first to point out that poetry could be used to vent resentment and thus established a basic function of poetry writing by emphasizing the roleTheBookofSongsplayed in voicing grievances. In the Han Dynasty，however，poetry tended to be used as a vehicle for extolling the accomplishments and virtues of rulers. In “Preface toMao’sVersionofTheBookofSongs” and “Preface toOntheCategoriesofTheBookofSongs，” two influential writings on theory of poetry published during the Han Dynasty，extolment and satirical criticism was regarded as an underlying principle of poetic criticism. This principle was widely employed by poets and writers of later generations as a way of getting involved in politics and making their impact on the society. This constituted a fundamental function and an essential feature of Chinese literature.

引例 Citations:

論功頌德，所以將順其美；譏刺過失，所以匡救其惡。(鄭玄《詩譜序》)

([詩歌]歌頌朝廷功德，是為了讓他們延續光大好的方面；諷刺批評其過失，是為了讓他們匡救改正不好的方面。)

Poems are composed to applaud the rulers to continue to do what is good by extolling their achievements and virtues，and to urge them to change the erroneous course by satirizing and criticizing their wrong doings. (Zheng Xuan: Preface toOntheCategoriesofTheBookofSongs)

漢儒言詩，不過美刺兩端。(程廷祚《青溪集·詩論十三·再論刺詩》)

(漢代儒者論說詩歌，不外乎贊美歌頌與諷刺批評兩方面。)

To Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty，poetry has two basic functions: extolment and satirical criticism. (Cheng Tingzuo:QingxiCollection)

5.民惟邦本 /mín wéi bānɡ běn/

People Being the Foundation of the State

指民眾是國家的根本或基礎。只有百姓安居樂業、生活穩定，國家才能安定。最早見于偽《古文尚書》所載大禹的訓示。這與戰國時代孟子提出的“民為貴，社稷次之，君為輕”，荀子提出的“水能載舟，亦能覆舟”的思想一脈相承，并由此形成儒家所推崇的“民本”思想。

This term means that the people are the essence of the state or the foundation upon which it stands. Only when people live and work in peace and contentment can the state be peaceful and stable. This saying，which first appeared in a pseudo-version ofTheClassicalBookofHistoryas an instruction by Yu the Great，can be traced to Mencius’ statement: “The essence of a state is the people，next come the god of land and the god of grain (which stand for state power)，and the last the ruler，” and Xunzi’s statement，“Just as water can float a boat，so can water overturn it.” This idea gave rise to the “people first” thought advocated by Confucianism.

引例 Citation：

皇祖有訓：民可近，不可下。民惟邦本，本固邦寧。(《尚書·五子之歌》)

(我們的祖先大禹曾經告誡說：民眾只可以親近，不能認為他們卑微。民眾是國家的根本，根本穩固了國家才能安寧。)

Our ancestor Yu the Great warned: (a ruler) must maintain a close relationship with the people；he must not regard them as insignificant. They are the foundation of a state，and a state can enjoy peace only when its foundation is firm. (TheBookofHistory)

6.情 /qínɡ/

Qing

“情”有三種不同含義：其一，泛指人的情感、欲望?！扒椤笔芡馕锔袆佣l，是人的自然本能，不是后天習得的。其二，特指人的某些情感、欲望，通常被規定為好、惡、喜、怒、哀、樂等六者，或喜、怒、哀、懼、愛、惡、欲等七者。前者也被稱作“六志”或“六情”，后者被稱作“七情”。其三，指情實或實情。對于前兩個意義上的“情”，歷代學者持有不同態度，或主張抑制“情”，或承認“情”的合理性而加以引導和安處。

The term has three different meanings. First，it means human emotions and desires，referring to the natural and instinctive reaction to external circumstances，not a learned response. Second，it refers to specific human emotions and desires，commonly known as the six human emotions: love，hatred，happiness，anger，sadness，and joy，or as the seven human emotions: happiness，anger，sadness，fear，love，hatred，and desire. Third，it means the true state of affairs，or actual situation. For centuries，scholars have had different interpretations on the first two meanings. Some advocated that emotions should be restrained or controlled，while others believed that emotions and desires were natural and should be properly guided.

引例 Citations：

何謂人情？喜、怒、哀、懼、愛、惡、欲，七者弗學而能。(《禮記·禮運》)

(什么叫作人之情？就是喜愛、惱怒、悲哀、恐懼、愛慕、憎惡、欲求，這七者不用學習就能產生。)

What are human emotions? They are happiness，anger，sadness，fear，love，hatred，and desire that arise instinctively. (TheBookofRites)

上好信，則民莫敢不用情。(《論語·子路》)

(地位高的人講求誠信，則民眾沒有人敢不以實情相待。)

If those in high positions act in good faith，the people will not dare to conceal the truths. (TheAnalects)

7.情景 /qínɡjǐnɡ/

Sentiment and Scenery

指文學作品中摹寫景物與抒發情感的相互依存和有機融合?！扒椤敝缸髡邇刃牡那楦?，“景”為外界景物。情景理論強調二者的交融，情無景不立，景無情不美。是宋代以后出現的文學術語，相對于早期的情物觀念，情景理論更加重視景物摹寫與情感抒發、創作與鑒賞過程的互相依賴與融為一體。

This term refers to the mutual dependence and integration of an author’s description of scenery and objects，and his expression of feelings in his literary creation.Qing(情) is an author’s inner feelings，andjing(景) refers to external scenery or an object. The theory of sentiment and scenery stresses integration of the two，maintaining that sentiment can hardly be aroused without scenery and that scenery or an object cannot be appreciated without sentiment. This term appeared in the Song Dynasty. Compared with earlier notions about sentiment and scenery，this one is more emphatic about fusing the depiction of scenery with the expression of feelings，and the process of creation with that of appreciation.

引例 Citations：

景無情不發，情無景不生。(范晞文《對床夜語》卷二)

(景物若沒有情感的注入就不會出現在詩歌中，情感若沒有景物的襯托就無從生發。)

Scenery has no place in poetry unless there are feelings for it；feelings cannot be stirred without the inspiration of scenery. (Fan Xiwen:MidnightDialoguesAcrossTwoBeds)

情景名為二，而實不可離。神于詩者，妙合無垠。巧者則有情中景、景中情。(王夫之《姜齋詩話》卷下)

(情與景雖然名稱上為二，但實際上不可分離。善于作詩的人，二者融合巧妙，看不出界限。構思精巧的則會有情中景、景中情。)

Sentiment and scenery seem to be two distinct things，but in fact they cannot be separated. A good poet knows how to integrate them seamlessly. An ingenious combination of sentiment and scenery means scenery embedded in sentiment and vice versa. (Wang Fuzhi:DesultoryRemarksonPoetryfromGingerStudio)

8.趣 /qù/

Qu

指文學藝術作品中所表現的作者的志趣、情趣、意趣等。作者的“趣”決定他們對自然、人生的獨特體驗和理解，以及對作品主題的選擇和作品的表現風格?！叭ぁ笔亲髌分袩o形的精神韻味，通過審美活動而體現出它的價值與品位高下。

Quis the aspirations，emotions，and interests expressed in the work of a writer or artist. His pursuit ofqudetermines his unique perception and comprehension of nature and life. It also determines what theme he chooses for his work and how he gives expression to it.Quis invisible but manifests its value and appeal through aesthetic appreciation.

引例 Citations：

(嵇)康善談理，又能屬文，其高情遠趣，率然玄遠。(《晉書·嵇康傳》)

(嵇康善談玄理，又擅長寫作，他情趣高雅，率真而曠遠。)

Ji Kang was good at explaining profundities and writing. He had a high style and fine taste. A forthright and broad-minded man，indeed! (TheJinHistory)

世人所難得者唯趣。趣如山上之色，水中之味，花中之光，女中之態，雖善說者不能下一語，唯會心者知之?！蛉さ弥匀徽呱?，得之學問者淺。(袁宏道《敘陳正甫〈會心集〉》)

(世人難以領悟的只有“趣”?！叭ぁ焙帽壬降念伾?、水的味道、花的光彩、女人的姿容，即使擅長言辭的人也不能一句話說清楚，只有領會于心的人知道它。……趣，如果從自然之性中得來，那是深層次的“趣”；如果從學問中得來，往往是膚淺的“趣”。)

The only thing really hard to understand in the world isqu.Quis like the hues of hills，the taste of water，the splendor of flowers，or the beauty of a woman. Even an eloquent person can hardly find words to put it clearly. Only those with empathy know it well…Quthat comes from nature is deep and mellow；if it comes from book learning，it is often shallow. (Yuan Hongdao: Preface to Chen Zhengfu’sInspirationsoftheMind)

9.人文化成 /rénwén-huàchénɡ/

RenWenHuaCheng

根據社會文明的進展程度與實際狀況，用合于“人文”的基本精神和原則教化民眾，引導民心向善，最終實現有差等又有調和的社會秩序?！叭宋摹敝傅氖窃姇?、禮樂、法度等精神文明的創造；“化”是教化、教導(民眾)并使之改變，“成”指社會文治昌明的實現?！叭宋幕伞钡暮诵脑谟趶娬{文治，實際上是中華“文明”理想的又一表達形式。

The term is used to describe efforts to teach people essential ideals and principles ofrenwen(人文) and guide them to embrace goodness with the aim of building a harmonious albeit hierarchical social order，according to the level of development of a civilization and the specifics of the society.Renwenrefers to poetry，books，social norms，music，law，and other non-material components of civilization.Hua(化) means to edify the populace；cheng(成) refers to the establishment or prosperity of rule by civil means (as opposed to force). The concept emphasizes rule by civil means，and is another expression of the Chinese concept of “civilization.”

引例 Citation：

觀乎天文，以察時變；觀乎人文，以化成天下。(《周易·賁》)

(觀察日月星辰的運行狀態，可以知道四季的變換；考察詩書禮樂的發展狀況，可以用來教化天下百姓，實現文治昌明。)

Observing the movements of the sun，moon，and stars helps us learn about the change of seasons；studying the development of poetry，books，social norms，and music enables us to edify the populace so that the rule by civil means can prosper. (TheBookofChanges)

10.人治 /rénzhì/

Rule by Man

通過規范人倫關系、道德觀念和其他價值系統來治理國家和民眾(與“法治”相對)，是中國古代儒家政治哲學中最重要的治國理念。這種理念強調人在政治中的根本地位和作用，希望君主具備圣賢的人格，選擇有道德和有才干的人治理國家，教育和感化臣民。在中國歷史上，這種治國理念通常伴隨著一個理想的期待，即實現君、臣、民三者之間的和諧相處，也就是“仁政”。

Rule by man，as opposed to rule by law，is the most important ruling concept in the Confucian political philosophy in ancient China. It calls for ruling a state and its people through orderly human relations，moral standards，and other value systems. Rule by man emphasizes the fundamental role and importance of people in conducting political affairs. It emphasizes that a ruler should have a lofty and noble character，select competent officials with integrity to run the state，and educate and influence the general public. In Chinese history，this concept of governance was designed to achieve a harmonious relationship between the sovereign，his officials，and his subjects，which meant “benevolent governance.”

引例 Citations：

人治所以正人。(《禮記·大傳》鄭玄注)

(人治就是用來規范人倫關系的。)

Rule by man aims to regulate human relations. (Zheng Xuan：AnnotationsonTheBookofRites)

情性者，人治之本，禮樂所由生也。(王充《論衡·本性》)

(人治究其根本在于治理人的情感和欲望，而這也是制定禮樂的原因和依據。)

Rule by man，in the final analysis，is to regulate human emotions and desires；it is the reason and basis for developing social norms and music education. (Wang Chong:AComparativeStudyofDifferentSchoolsofLearning)

11.仁 /rén/

Ren

“仁”的基本含義是愛人，進而達到人與人之間、天地萬物之間一體的狀態?！叭省奔仁堑赖滦袨榈幕A和依據，又是一種內在的與道德行為相應的心理意識。大體來說，“仁”有如下三重含義：其一，指惻隱之心或良心；其二，指根源于父子兄弟關系基礎上的親親之德；其三，指天地萬物一體的狀態和境界。儒家將其作為最高的道德準則，并將“仁”理解為有差等的愛，即愛人以孝父母敬兄長為先，進而關愛其他家族成員，最終擴大為對天下之人的博愛。

The basic meaning of the term is love for others. Its extended meaning refers to the state of harmony among people，and the unity of all things under heaven.Ren(仁) constitutes the foundation and basis for moral behavior. It is also a consciousness that corresponds to the norms of moral behavior. Roughly put，renhas the following three implications：(1) compassion or conscience；(2) virtue of respect built upon the relationship between fathers and sons and among brothers；and (3) the unity of all things under heaven. Confucianism holdsrenas the highest moral principle.Renis taken as love in the order of first showing filial piety to one’s parents and elder brothers，and then extending love and care to other members of the family，and eventually to everyone else under heaven.

引例 Citations：

克己復禮為仁。(《論語·顏淵》)

(約束自己使言語行為都合于禮，就是仁。)

Renmeans to restrain one’s self and follow social norms. (TheAnalects)

仁者，愛之理，心之德也。(朱熹《論語集注》)

(仁，是愛的道理，心的德性。)

Renis the principle of love and the moral nature of human mind. (Zhu Xi:TheAnalectsVariorum)

12.日新 /rìxīn/

Constant Renewal

天天更新。努力使自身不斷更新，使民眾、社會、國家不斷更新，持續進步、完善，始終呈現新的氣象。它是貫穿在“修齊治平”各層面的一種自強不息、不斷革新進取的精神。

This term refers to an ongoing process of self-renewal，which also brings new life to the people，society，and the nation. This process features continuous progress and improvement. It represents a tenacious and innovative spirit that permeates all levels of “self-cultivation，family regulation，state governance，bringing peace to all under heaven.”

引例 Citation：

湯之盤銘曰：“茍日新，日日新，又日新?！薄犊嫡a》曰：“作新民?！薄对姟吩唬骸爸茈m舊邦，其命維新?！笔枪示訜o所不用其極。(《禮記·大學》)

(商朝的開國君主湯的浴盆上加鑄的銘文說：“如果能夠一天更新自己，就應保持天天更新，更新了還要再更新?！薄渡袝た嫡a》上說：“激勵民眾棄舊圖新，去惡向善?！薄对娊洝飞险f：“周雖然是古老的國家，卻稟受了新的天命?！彼跃訜o時無處不盡心盡力革新自己。)

“If we can improve ourselves in one day，we should do so every day，and keep building on improvement，” reads the inscription on the bathtub of Tang，founder of the Shang Dynasty. “People should be encouraged to discard the old and embrace the new，give up evil ideas，and live up to high moral standards，” saysTheBookofHistory. “Though it was an ancient state，Zhou saw its future lying in continuously renewing itself，” commentsTheBookofSongs. Therefore，junzi(men of virtue) should strive to excel themselves in all aspects and at all times. (TheBookofRites)

13.镕裁 /rónɡcái/

Refining and Deleting

對文學作品的基本內容與詞句進行提煉與剪裁，使之達到更高的水準與境界。屬于文學寫作的基本范疇。最早由《文心雕龍》提出。主要指作者在寫作過程中，根據所要表達的內容以及文體特點，對于創作構思中的眾多素材加以提煉，同時對文辭去粗存精、刪繁就簡，以求得最佳表現效果。這一術語既強調文學寫作的精益求精，同時也彰顯了文學創作是內容與形式不斷完善的過程。 明清時期戲劇創作理論也頗受其影響。

This term refers to improving a literary work by refining its basic content and making the presentation concise. Refining and deleting is a basic process in literary writing. The term was first mentioned inTheLiteraryMindandtheCarvingofDragons. It means that in producing a literary work，the author should select the right elements from all the material he has，delete unnecessary parts and keep the essence，and write in a concise way to best present what he has in mind and to best suit the styles of writing. It shows that literary creation is a process of constantly striving for perfection in terms of both content and form. This idea had a great impact on the theory of theatrical writing in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

引例 Citations：

規范本體謂之镕，剪截浮詞謂之裁。裁則蕪穢不生，镕則綱領昭暢。(劉勰《文心雕龍·镕裁》)

(“镕”是規范文章的基本內容和結構，“裁”是刪去多余的詞句。經過剪裁，文章就沒有多余雜亂的詞句；經過提煉，文章就會綱目清楚、層次分明。)

Refining means to shape the basic content and structure of a literary work，while deleting means to cut off redundant words or sentences. Once done，the essay will be well structured，with a clear-cut theme. (Liu Xie:TheLiteraryMindandtheCarvingofDragons)

艾繁而不可刪，濟略而不可益。若二子者，可謂練镕裁而曉繁略矣。(劉勰《文心雕龍·镕裁》)

(謝艾的文章用詞雖然堆砌，但都是必不可少的，不能刪減；王濟的語言雖然簡略，但能夠充分表達意思，不能增加。像這兩位，可以說是精通镕裁的方法，明了繁簡得當的道理了。)

Xie Ai’s essays are ornate in expression yet free of unnecessary sentences or words，with nothing to be deleted. Wang Ji’s writing is concise in style；it sufficiently expresses an idea without the need for using more words. Men of letters like them surely command the art of refining and deleting by using a proper amount of words and expressions. (Liu Xie:TheLiteraryMindandtheCarvingofDragons)

14.社稷 /shèjì/

Sheji(Gods of the Earth and the Five Grains)

古代帝王、諸侯所祭祀的土地神和五谷神。“社”是土地神，“稷”是五谷神。土地神和五谷神是以農為本的漢民族最重要的原始崇拜物。古代君主為了祈求國事太平、五谷豐登，每年都要祭祀土地神和五谷神，“社稷”因此成為國家與政權的象征。

She(社) is the God of the Earth，andji(稷，millet) represents the God of the Five Grains. Chinese kings and vassals of ancient times offered sacrifices to these gods. As the Han Chinese depended on farming，these gods were the most important primitive objects of worship. The ancient rulers offered sacrifices to the gods of the Earth and the Five Grains every year to pray for peace and good harvests in the country. As a result，shejibecame a symbol of the nation and state power.

引例 Citation:

王者所以社稷何？為天下求福報功。人非土不立，非谷不食。土地廣博，不可遍敬也；五谷眾多，不可一一祭也。故封土立社示有土尊；稷，五谷之長，故立稷而祭之也。(《白虎通義·社稷》)

(天子為何設立土地神與五谷神呢？是為了天下百姓祈求神的賜福、報答神的功德。沒有土地，人就不能生存；沒有五谷，人就沒有食物。土地廣大，不可能全都禮敬；五谷眾多，不可能全都祭祀。所以封土為壇立土地神以表示土地的尊貴；稷[谷子]是五谷中最重要的糧食，所以立稷為五谷神而予以祭祀。)

Why do the Sons of Heaven worship the gods of the Earth and the Five Grains? They do so to seek blessings for all under heaven and to requite the gods’ blessings. Without earth，people have nowhere to live；without grain，people have nothing to eat. The earth is too vast to be worshipped everywhere；the variety of grains is too large to be worshipped one by one. Therefore，earth altars to the God of the Earth have been set up to honor the earth；and as millet is the chief one of the five grains，it has become the God of the Five Grains and sacrifices have been instituted. (DebatesoftheWhiteTigerHall)

15.神 /shén/

Shen(Spirit / Spiritual)

“神”有四種不同的含義：其一，指具有人格意義的神靈，具有超越于人力的能力。天地、山川、日月、星辰等自然事物皆有其神靈，人死后的靈魂也可以成為神靈。其二，指人的精神、心神。道教認為“神”是人的生命的主宰，因此以存神、煉神為長生之要。其三，指天地萬物在陰陽的相互作用下發生的微妙不測的變化。在這個意義上，“神”常與“化”連用，合稱“神化”。其四，指人所具有的神妙不可測度的生命境界。

The term has four meanings. First，it indicates a deity in a personified sense，possessing superhuman capabilities. Natural things，such as heaven and earth，mountains and rivers，sun and moon，and stars，have their deity. A human soul may also become a deity after death. Second，it indicates the human spirit and mind. Daoism considers “spirit” to be the dominating factor in human life. Therefore，maintaining and refining the spirit is most important to prolong life. Third，it indicates the subtle and unfathomable changing of all things as well as heaven and earth occurring under the interaction of yin and yang. In this sense the term is often used together withhua(化 change)，the combination being called “divine change.” Fourth，it indicates a marvelous and unfathomable realm in life attained by a person.

引例 Citations：

國將興，聽于民；將亡，聽于神。(《左傳·莊公三十二年》)

(國家將要興盛之時，行事聽從于民意；將要敗亡之時，行事聽從于神靈。)

The nation will prosper when people’s opinions are heard and it will perish when only the will of the spirit is followed. (Zuo’sCommentaryonTheSpringandAutumnAnnals)

氣有陰陽，推行有漸為化，合一不測為神。(張載《正蒙·神化》)

(氣包含陰陽二氣，二氣的推行漸進稱為化，二氣交互統一不可測度的變化稱為神。)

Inqi(vital force) there areyinandyangwhose gradual operation means change. The unpredictable interaction and unity of yin and yang is what is called spirit.

(Zhang Zai:EnlightenmentThroughConfucianTeachings)

圣而不可知之謂神。(《孟子·盡心下》)

(圣德到了神妙不可測度的境界稱作“神”。)

Being sage beyond understanding，that is called divine. (Mencius)

16.神思 /shénsī/

Imaginative Contemplation

文藝創作過程中的一種精神狀態，指的是作者在飽滿的情感驅動下，超越時間與空間的限制，進入到自由想象或特殊的靈感狀態，最后通過特定的文學藝術形象和語言而傳達出來，創作出自然而美好的文藝作品。這一術語在魏晉南北朝的文藝理論中得到廣泛運用，南朝劉勰《文心雕龍》對此有專門論述?！吧袼肌睆娬{它是文藝創作中一種獨特的心理活動，不同于其他認識活動。

The term refers to a state of mind in the process of literary and artistic creation. It suggests that the author，fully inspired by emotions，transcends the constraint of time and space，and enters into a state of free imagination or a special mood for literary and artistic creation，before producing a natural and beautiful work of literature or art，either in language or in imagery. This term was popularly used in literary and artistic theories of the Wei，Jin，and Southern and Northern dynasties. Liu Xie of the Southern Dynasties devoted one chapter especially to this term inTheLiteraryMindandtheCarvingofDragons. With emphasis on the unique mental activity in literary and artistic creation，imaginative contemplation is different from other cognitive activities.

引例 Citations：

古人云：“形在江海之上，心存魏闕之下?！鄙袼贾^也。文之思也，其神遠矣。(劉勰《文心雕龍·神思》)

(古人說：“身在民間，心卻想著朝廷?！边@說的就是神思。文章寫作時的想象和思緒，其神奇是可以超越時空的呀！)

An ancient saying goes，“Though he lives among the common folks，deep in his heart he concerns himself with affairs of the imperial court.” This is called imaginative contemplation. When one writes，his imaginations and thoughts may transcend time and space. (Liu Xie:TheLiteraryMindandtheCarvingofDragons)

屬文之道，事出神思，感召無象，變化不窮。(蕭子顯《南齊書·文學傳論》)

(寫文章的規律，來自于神思，人對萬物的感觸沒有形跡，變化無窮。)

The guiding principles for literary creation come from imaginative contemplation. Man’s feelings and thoughts about the external world are formless and highly changeable. (Xiao Zixian:TheHistoryofSouthernQi)

選自“中華思想文化術語”系列圖書(外語教學與研究出版社出版)