馬佳琦 劉鵬
摘要:核小體是染色質的基本結構單位,DNA纏繞在組蛋白八聚體外側形成核小體。核小體的串珠結構在組蛋白H1的存在下形成緊密的30 nm染色質纖維。多種H1亞型的存在及其不同翻譯后修飾揭示組蛋白H1功能的復雜性。本文綜述了組蛋白H1的生物學功能,H1在表觀修飾、基因轉錄和DNA復制方面的調控機制,并概括了H1翻譯后修飾及其功能調控的研究進展,為H1的研究工作提供了參考。
關鍵詞:組蛋白H1;表觀遺傳修飾;基因轉錄;翻譯后修飾
中圖分類號: Q811.4文獻標志碼: A文章編號:1002-1302(2020)13-0034-07
收稿日期:2020-01-20
基金項目:國家科技重大專項轉基因生物新品種培育(編號:2018ZX08020003-003)。
作者簡介:馬佳琦(1995—),女,江蘇靖江人,碩士研究生,主要從事表觀遺傳研究。E-mail:812730438@qq.com。
通信作者:劉鵬,博士,助理研究員,主要從事表觀遺傳研究。E-mail:pengliu@yzu.edu.cn。染色質是真核生物遺傳物質的載體。核小體是染色質的基本結構單位,由組蛋白和DNA構成。組蛋白是染色質的基本結構蛋白,分別為H1、H2A、H2B、H3、H4,其中H1是最早發現的組蛋白,其余4種為核心組蛋白。組蛋白H2A、H2B、H3、H4各2個分子形成組蛋白八聚體,約147 bp DNA以左旋超螺旋方式纏繞在組蛋白八聚體構成的核心結構外,形成核小體[1-3]。組蛋白H1不構成核小體,而是將DNA與核小體緊扣在一起。作為染色體的基本結構蛋白,組蛋白H1在表觀調控、基因轉錄、DNA復制、DNA損傷修復、染色體重塑等方面發揮重要作用。本文將重點介紹組蛋白H1主要生物學功能及其發生的翻譯后修飾。
1組蛋白H1變體
1.1動物中H1亞型
組蛋白H1有多個變體。在人和小鼠中已經鑒定出了11種變體,包括7種體細胞亞型H1.0、H1.1、H1.2、H1.3、H1.4、H1.5、H1X,3種睪丸特異性亞型H1t、H1T2、HILS1和1種卵母細胞特異性亞型H1oo[4-5]。體細胞中H1.1-H1.5的表達依賴于DNA復制,而H1.0和H1X不依賴于DNA復制并且可以在非增殖細胞中表達[6]。H1.0則主要富集在已分化的細胞中[7]。在兩棲動物和禽類生物中,H1.0(在鳥類中稱為H5)主要富集在高度濃縮的惰性染色質中。在鳥類等紅細胞中的H5變體與哺乳動物中組蛋白H1.0具有較高同源性,雞紅細胞中H5占總H1含量的60%[8]。果蠅的幼蟲和成體中最初只發現1個H1變體。而后,鑒定出1個具有較長的氨基端的H1變體,命名為dBigH1,主要在胚胎發育初期表達[9]。dBigH1由單個基因編碼,為研究組蛋白功能提供了便利。
1.2植物中H1亞型
目前,在擬南芥中僅鑒定出3個組蛋白H1亞型H1.1、H1.2、H1.3[10-12]。這3個組蛋白H1富集度都與H3K4me3負相關,但相比較組蛋白H1.1、H1.2,組蛋白H1.3與H3K4me3的負相關程度低于H1.1和H1.2。H3K4me3修飾水平越高,H1.3表達水平越高;而與H3K4me3修飾相反,H3K9me2修飾水平越高,H1.3表達水平越低[13]。組蛋白H1.1和H1.2有85%的序列同源性,而H1.3與H1.1和H1.2基因的同源性較低。H1.3在脫落酸誘導時表達[11,14]。
2組蛋白H1結構
組蛋白H1分子由1個中央球狀結構域(globular domain)和氨基端結構域(amino-terminal domain)、羧基端結構域(carboxy-terminal domain)構成。在不同物種中氨基端和羧基端結構域序列變化較大,中央球狀結構域序列在所有H1變體中是高度保守的,這個結構是H1與核小體結合必需的[15-17]。在低等真核四膜蟲中組蛋白H1只包含1個羧基端尾巴[18]。
3組蛋白H1的生物學功能
3.1H1與核心組蛋白表觀修飾
真核生物通過核心組蛋白的翻譯后修飾和DNA甲基化來動態調控表觀修飾水平。組蛋白H1在基因組中分布并不是均一的,其分布受基因組環境的影響。試驗表明,在活躍轉錄基因的啟動子區,當H3K4me3等激活性組蛋白修飾富集,則組蛋白H1水平驟減。在異染色質或非轉錄區H1富集程度增加,抑制性組蛋白修飾水平也會同時增加,如H3K9me和H3K27me。因此,組蛋白H1調控核心組蛋白的翻譯后修飾狀態[19-21]。
研究發現,H1富集度與核心組蛋白的低乙酰化修飾緊密相關。H1通過負調控組蛋白乙酰轉移酶抑制組蛋白乙酰化[22]。人類中p300/CBP相關因子(p300/CBP-associated factor,PCAF)具有乙酰轉移酶活性,組蛋白H1的羧基端結構域會阻礙PCAF與組蛋白H3接近,從而抑制組蛋白H3發生乙酰化修飾。在果蠅中,H1對于維持雌性生殖細胞的干細胞是必需的。通常H1抑制乙酰轉移酶MOF活性,MOF可特異識別乙酰化H4K16位點,當H1減少時H4K16ac水平增加,導致雌性生殖細胞干細胞過早分化[23]。此外,組蛋白去乙酰化酶也參與調控這一過程。人類中組蛋白去乙酰化酶Sirtuin 1可使H4K16、H3K9、H1K26位點發生去乙酰化,維持H1富集狀態,同時H3K79me2修飾水平降低[24]。
H1參與調控抑制轉座元件活性。在果蠅生殖細胞中,轉座元件在轉錄和翻譯后水平受piRNAs(PIWI-interacting RNAs)調控,piRNAs與PIWI蛋白結合形成復合物,伴隨H3K9發生甲基化,抑制轉座子轉錄。進一步發現PIWI蛋白和H1發生相互作用,并招募異染色質蛋白(heterochromatin protein 1,HP1),實現異染色質化。PIWI蛋白減少會導致轉座元件附近的H1含量減少,使轉座元件去抑制[25]。盡管這一過程需要H1、H3K9me和HP1共同參與,然而H1減少后,靶位點染色質開放程度增加,H3K9me3修飾在這些位點的富集度不變,另一方面HP1的缺失不影響H1分布[25]。
H1也會影響另一個組蛋白抑制標記H3K27me。體外試驗發現,當存在H1的寡聚核小體時,PRC2-EZH2(enhancer of zeste 2)復合體可使H3K27甲基化。這是由于H1和hPRC2復合物中的SUZ12、EED和AEBP2組分相互作用導致的[26]。人的H1.2優先結合發生H3K27me3修飾的核小體,同時H3K27me3也會增加H1.2水平[27]。因此,H1和H3K27me3修飾之間形成一個正反饋環,二者共同維持染色質沉默狀態[27]。
DNA甲基化也是真核生物中一個重要的表觀遺傳標志[28]。在哺乳動物和植物中均發現H1與DNA甲基化密切聯系。在擬南芥中H1敲減突變體不能正常發育,這與DNA低甲基化突變體表型相似[29]。在小鼠ES細胞中,H1減少顯著影響某些區域DNA甲基化水平,特別在印記基因H19和Meg3的印記控制區呈現低甲基化[12]。在H1敲減的ES細胞中H1水平得到恢復后,印記基因H19和Meg3的甲基化水平相應的提高,從而抑制其基因表達[20]。由此推測H1調控在特異位點發生的DNA甲基化。多個H1亞型直接與DNA甲基轉移酶DNMT1和DNMT3B相互作用,將DNA甲基轉移酶招募到印記控制區。此外H1還參與調控X染色體連鎖的Hox基因簇[30]。H1減少的小鼠ES細胞中細胞分化受到影響,是因為全能性基因Oct4的表達受到抑制[31]。小鼠ES細胞中H1敲減實驗表明H1促進調控區域發生DNA甲基化,尤其是在增強子區域[32]。H1調控DNA甲基化對疾病機理研究來說也是非常重要的。例如,在淋巴B細胞中,觀察到編碼H1的基因發生突變,阻止了H1與DNMT3B的相互作用[33]。
3.2H1與基因表達
不同組蛋白H1亞型調控特定基因表達水平的上調和下調。在早期研究中,Shen等證明H1調控四膜蟲中的特定基因的表達[18]。Hashimoto等在雞細胞中建立H1敲除細胞系,敲除了所有的6種H1亞型,發現多種基因的表達受到影響,主要是基因表達水平下調[34]。在果蠅中,H1基因RNAi材料中發現H1減少后影響異染色區的基因表達,H1也是維持轉座因子沉默所必需的[35]。Skoultchi等發現,在小鼠中,單個H1亞型的減少可以影響位置效應斑(position effect variegation)和基因表達[36]。在小鼠ES細胞中同時敲除3個H1亞型后,H1總含量降低50%,而只有極少數特異性基因上調或下調,證明H1精準調控基因表達[37]。Sancho等在T47D乳腺癌細胞系中,用shRNA(short hairpin RNA)技術分別靶向沉默H1.0、H1.2、H1.3、H1.4或H1.5亞型,發現特定H1亞型的減少會影響不同基因的表達[38]。這種方法能夠快速沉默單個H1亞型,避免了由于常規基因敲除引起的劑量補償效應;然而,在shRNA沉默材料中可能存在低水平的目標蛋白[38]。
組蛋白H1還參與調控特定基因表達的模型。構建受激素誘導的小鼠MMTV(mouse mammary tumor virus)啟動子表達體系,最初發現在激素誘導條件下H1位置發生變化[39]。隨后研究發現,在激素誘導發生之前,H1就存在并有效促進轉錄[40]。事實上,H1發生磷酸化后與MMTV啟動子的結合使染色質構象發生改變,新的結構易于激素受體和轉錄因子結合[41-42]。
Kim等發現H1.2招募E3泛素連接酶cullin 4A(CUL4A)將H4K31位點泛素化,促進靶基因區組蛋白修飾激活標記H3K4me3和H3K79me2水平增加,從而增強靶基因轉錄[43]。H1.2選擇性識別RNA聚合酶Pol Ⅱ磷酸化位點Ser2,招募PAF1(RNA PolⅡ associated factor 1)和CUL4A,在特定位點維持活躍轉錄狀態[43]。
H1也與抑制特定基因有關。例如,H1參與干擾素應答基因的調控[44]。H1與轉錄抑制因子形成復合物。與抑制性染色質狀態相關的Msx1(Msh homeobox 1)蛋白,是肌肉細胞分化負調控因子,也是HP1蛋白的負調節因子。小鼠中Msx1將組蛋白H1b招募到MyoD(myogenic differentiation D)基因的關鍵調控元件區,從而呈現抑制性染色質狀態,抑制肌肉細胞分化[45]。
3.3H1與DNA復制
DNA復制中染色質結構進行重塑,組蛋白H1在DNA復制中發揮重要作用[46]。利用HeLa細胞提取物在體外重新構建SV40 DNA復制體系,發現當反應中H1與核心組蛋白的摩爾比大于1時,H1顯著減少SV40復制[47]。從處于細胞周期不同階段的細胞中提取H1用于體外實驗,發現來源于G0期和M期細胞的H1可以強烈抑制SV40 DNA復制,這可能與周期特異的H1翻譯后修飾有關[48]。不同的H1變體抑制DNA復制能力不同,這取決于H1羧基端結構,也與H1變體結合染色質親和力相關[49-50]。
果蠅幼蟲中發現H1調控核內復制。果蠅中H1是SUUR(protein suppressor of underreplication)蛋白的上游效應子[51]。在染色質延遲復制區,H1招募SUUR蛋白到多線染色體的異染色質區,阻遏復制叉前移,導致復制效率降低,異染色質區基因拷貝數減少。核內復制時H1在多線染色體上呈現出動態的時間分布。在S期,H1富集在延遲復制的位點上。在多頭絨泡菌(Physarum polycephalum)中也發現H1是復制過程中的重要調控因子,H1缺失會阻礙延遲復制進程[52]。
3.4H1與DNA損傷修復、基因組穩定
組蛋白H1含量的減少直接影響染色質結構,從而影響DNA損傷修復和基因組穩定性。HHO1是釀酒酵母(S. cerevisiae)H1的同系物,抑制同源重組影響DNA修復[53]。H1抑制果蠅基因組中轉座元件活性,H1缺失后導致基因組不穩定[19,35]。在果蠅幼蟲成蟲盤和唾液腺細胞中H1敲除引發過度重組和基因組重排,從而積累了源于rDNA的環狀DNA。果蠅H1減少會導致全基因組范圍DNA雙鏈斷裂的頻率增加[19]。
組蛋白H1與DNA修復機制中多個組分及DNA損傷應答因子之間發生相互作用。在人類中,E2泛素結合酶UBE2N(也稱UBC13)將H1泛素化,E3泛素連接酶RNF168識別泛素化的H1,導致在DSBs(double-stranded DNA breaks)處Lys63位泛素化修飾,從而招募DNA修復因子結合。人H1.0與Ku86、Ku70相互作用,而Ku86和Ku70形成二聚體與DSBs結合,它們的相互作用是非同源末端連接DNA修復所必需的[54]。
3.5H1與早期胚胎形成
研究發現存在在生殖細胞特異表達的H1。果蠅H1變體dBigH1在生殖細胞和在胚胎發育最初幾小時期間表達,在細胞化開始后它被體細胞dH1取代。dBigH1對早期胚胎發育至關重要,防止早熟的合子基因組激活[9]。在非洲爪蟾的卵子中發現母系表達B4蛋白是主要的連接組蛋白,在胚囊期被體細胞H1取代[55]。B4有利于開放染色質的形成,并導致依賴ATP的染色質重塑[56]。哺乳動物的卵母細胞中特異性組蛋白H1oo持續表達直至雙細胞胚胎末期[57]。延長H1oo的表達導致多能性標記基因的延長表達,并阻止細胞分化[58]。
4組蛋白H1的翻譯后修飾
組蛋白H1的氨基端或羧基端結構域經過翻譯后修飾發揮其生物學功能。
4.1H1磷酸化
早在20世紀70年代就發現了組蛋白H1磷酸化。到目前為止,對H1磷酸化研究較為充分[59]。組蛋白H1磷酸化主要發生在其羧基端特定的基序,這些基序能被細胞周期蛋白依賴性激酶(cyclin-dependent kinase,CDK)識別。H1磷酸化修飾參與DNA復制過程。H1磷酸化水平隨細胞周期變化[60-64],在G1期水平最低,在S期和G2期升高并在有絲分裂時達到最高,在末期急劇下降[62,65-66]。Talasz等發現,H1.5中Ser殘基磷酸化發生在G1期和S期,Thr磷酸化主要發生在有絲分裂期[62]。在有絲分裂中,CDK1/CycB(Cyclin B)主要負責H1磷酸化,但也有其他激酶參與。研究表明組蛋白H1本身是中期染色體凝聚所必需的[67],同時在有絲分裂細胞中誘導H1發生去磷酸化導致染色體去凝聚化[66,68]。
H1磷酸化也參與基因轉錄過程。H1磷酸化后,H1與染色質間結合減弱,有利于活性啟動子區域去除H1[41-42,69]。Vicent等發現磷酸化的H1參與調控受激素誘導的小鼠MMTV啟動子表達[69]。Zheng等在人類HeLaS3細胞中確定了3個磷酸化位點H1.2 S173p、H1.4 S172p、H1.4 S187p,這些磷酸化定位在核仁中。通過ChIP(chromatin immunoprecipitation)實驗表明H1.4 S187磷酸化富集在活性rRNA啟動子區及激素應答元件區,證明H1磷酸化參與調控RNA PolⅠ和RNA PolⅡ介導的轉錄[70]。
組蛋白H1磷酸化及其對染色質結合的影響也與DNA損傷修復相關。研究證實H1磷酸化的狀態確實可以指示DNA損傷程度[71]。發生低程度DNA損傷,只有少量H1分子磷酸化并從染色質中釋放出來,致使染色質解凝,從而允許修復損傷蛋白結合。如果DNA發生嚴重損傷,那么更多的H1被磷酸化并從染色質釋放出來,暗示DNA損傷已經超出可修復的范圍。Roque等分析了當H1與DNA結合時,H1的羧基端發生部分磷酸化和完全磷酸化對其二級結構的影響,發現磷酸化水平會影響羧基端的α螺旋、β結構以及無結構區域的比例,表明依賴磷酸化水平的結構重排[72],并且H1部分磷酸化損害了其凝聚染色質的能力[73]。因此,不同位點的H1磷酸化引起染色質的結構變化,進而影響染色質高級結構形成[72-73]。
4.2H1甲基化
在原生動物Euglena gracilisl中首次發現了H1賴氨酸甲基化[74]。組蛋白H1甲基化主要發生在其氨基端。H1.4的氨基端K26位點甲基化是人類H1發生最多的甲基化位點[75],K26位點甲基化在脊椎動物中是保守的[76]。在哺乳動物細胞中,PRC2-EZH2和G9a甲基轉移酶催化H1.4 K26甲基化,賴氨酸去甲基化酶JMJD2/KDM4催化其去甲基化[77-78]。H1.4 K26甲基化為HP1和L3MBTL1結合提供了基礎,這2種蛋白在異染色質形成中具有重要作用[79-80]。
4.3H1乙酰化
H1乙酰化發生在氨基端、羧基端和球狀區域。球狀結構域中的乙酰化位點大多直接參與DNA結合[81]。核心組蛋白乙酰化通常與開放染色質和活躍轉錄有關。H1乙酰化位點可直接影響H1與DNA結合,并導致H1位置發生改變。如果用組蛋白去乙酰化酶的抑制劑處理,一般難以區分H1乙酰化與核心組蛋白乙酰化[24,82]。
H1的氨基端發生的乙酰化參與轉錄調控。實驗證實組蛋白乙酰轉移酶GCN5(general control of amino acid synthesis 5)乙酰化H1.4 K34位點,招募轉錄因子TFⅡD(transcription factor ⅡD)的亞基TAF1,致使H1與染色質的結合能力降低,從而激活轉錄。H1.4 K34乙酰化在活躍轉錄的啟動子處富集[83]。
4.4H1泛素化
在2000年,Pham和Sauer發現在果蠅中存在由TAFⅡ250誘導的H1單泛素化[84]。TAFⅡ2 50是轉錄因子TFⅡD的一個亞基,參與基因轉錄。當TFⅡD失活時,組蛋白H1泛素化水平和基因表達水平均降低。果蠅中發現H1的3個位點K23、K27、K165均可泛素化[85]。小鼠HRF(+)細胞中觀察到,H1.5單泛素化對于HIV-1抗性產生很重要[86]。
4.5其他H1翻譯后修飾
H1還有其他各種翻譯后修飾,包括瓜氨酸化、甲酰化、脫硝、ADP-核糖基化、巴豆酰化等,但它們的功能仍有待闡明。
5總結
過去數十年間,組蛋白H1的研究取得了實質性進展。一方面,作為染色質重要的結構蛋白,H1各種變體以不同方式與核小體結合穩定核小體結構,從而形成多樣的染色質高級結構。另一方面,H1作為染色質中重要的調控蛋白,通過與其他蛋白相互作用而發揮生物學功能。科學家將從更多的方面探索H1特性和功能,借助結構生物學方法揭示不同物種中的H1在染色質結構組織的特點及表觀修飾存在下H1如何調控染色質高級結構的變化,利用反向遺傳學方法從不同H1亞型突變體材料著手研究H1調控通路的分子機制。
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