詞典查不到的種族主義定義

尼基·麗莎·科爾

Racism refers to a variety of practices， beliefs， social relations， and phenomena that work to reproduce a racial hierarchy and social structure that yield superiority， power， and privilege for some， and discrimination and oppression for others. It can take several forms， including representational， ideological， discursive， interactional， institutional， structural， and systemic.

Racism exists when ideas and assumptions about racial categories are used to justify and reproduce a racial hierarchy and racially structured society that unjustly limits access to resources， rights， and privileges on the basis of race. Racism also occurs when this kind of unjust social structure is produced by the failure to account for race and its historical and contemporary roles in society.

Contrary to a dictionary definition， racism， as defined based on social science research and theory， is about much more than race-based prejudice—it exists when an imbalance in power and social status is generated by how we understand and act upon race.

The 7 forms of racism

Racism takes seven main forms， according to social science. Rarely does any one exist on its own. Instead， racism typically operates as a combination of at least two forms working together， simultaneously. Independently and together， these seven forms of racism work to reproduce racist ideas， racist interactions and behavior， racist practices and policies， and an overall racist social structure.

Representational racism

Depictions of racial stereotypes are common in popular culture and media， like the historical tendency to cast people of color as criminals and as victims of crime rather than in other roles， or as background characters rather than as leads in film and television. Also common are racial caricatures that are racist in their representations， like “mascots” for the Cleveland Indians， Atlanta Braves， and the Washington Redskins1.

The power of representational racism—or racism expressed in how racial groups are represented within popular culture—is that it encapsulates a whole range of racist ideas that imply inferiority， and often stupidity and untrustworthiness， in images that circulate society and permeate our culture. While those not directly harmed by representational racism might not take it seriously， the presence of such images and our interaction with them on a near-constant basis helps to keep alive the racist ideas attached to them.

Ideological racism

Ideology is a word that sociologists use to refer to the world views， beliefs， and common-sense ways of thinking that are normal in a society or culture. So， ideological racism is a kind of racism that colors and manifests in those things. It refers to world views， beliefs， and common-sense ideas that are rooted in racial stereotypes and biases. A troubling example is the fact that many people in American society， regardless of their race， believe that white and light skinned people are more intelligent than dark-skinned people and superior in a variety of other ways.

Historically， this particular form of ideological racism supported and justified the building of European colonial empires and U.S. imperialism through the unjust acquisition of land， people， and resources around the world. Today， some common ideological forms of racism include the belief that Black women are sexually promiscuous， that Latina women are “fiery” or “hot-tempered，” and that black men and boys are criminally oriented. This form of racism has a negative impact on people of color as a whole because it works to deny them access to and/or success within education and the professional world， and subjects them to heightened police surveillance， harassment， and violence， among other negative outcomes.

Discursive racism

Racism is often expressed linguistically， in the “discourse” we use to talk about the world and people in it. This kind of racism is expressed as racial slurs and hate speech， but also as code words that have racialized meanings embedded in them， like “ghetto，” “thug，” or “gangsta.” Just as representational racism communicates racist ideas through images， discursive racism communicates them through the actual words we use to describe people and places. Using words that rely on stereotypical racial differences to communicate explicit or implicit hierarchies perpetuates the racist inequalities that exist in society.

Interactional racism

Racism often takes an interactional form， which means it is expressed in how we interact with each other. For example， a white or Asian woman walking on a sidewalk may cross the street to avoid passing closely by a black or Latino man because she is implicitly biased to see these men as potential threats. When a person of color is verbally or physically assaulted because of their race， this is interactional racism. When a neighbor calls the police to report a break-in because they do not recognize their black neighbor， or when someone automatically assumes that a person of color is a low-level employee or an assistant， though they might be a manager， executive， or owner of a business， this is interactional racism. Hate crimes are the most extreme manifestation of this form of racism. Interactional racism causes stress， anxiety， and emotional and physical harm to people of color on a daily basis.

Institutional racism

Racism takes institutional form in the ways that policies and laws are crafted and put into practice through societys institutions， such as the decades-long set of policing and legal policies known as “The War on Drugs，” which has disproportionately targeted neighborhoods and communities that are composed predominantly of people of color. Other examples include New York Citys Stop-N-Frisk2 policy that overwhelmingly targets black and Latino males， the practice among real estate agents and mortgage lenders of not allowing people of color to own property in certain neighborhoods and that force them to accept less desirable mortgage rates， and educational tracking policies that funnel children of color into remedial classes3 and trades programs4. Institutional racism preserves and fuels the racial gaps in wealth， education， and social status， and serves to perpetuate white supremacy and privilege.

Structural racism

Structural racism refers to the ongoing， historical， and long-term reproduction of the racialized structure of our society through a combination of all of the above forms. Structural racism manifests in widespread racial segregation and stratification on the basis of education， income， and wealth， the recurrent displacement of people of color from neighborhoods that go through processes of gentrification5， and the overwhelming burden of environmental pollution borne by people of color given its proximity to their communities6. Structural racism results in large-scale， society-wide inequalities on the basis of race.

Systemic racism

Many sociologists describe racism in the U.S. as “systemic” because the country was founded on racist beliefs that created racist policies and practices， and because that legacy lives today in the racism that courses throughout the entirety of our social system. This means that racism was built into the very foundation of our society， and because of this， it has influenced the development of social institutions， laws， policies， beliefs， media representations， and behaviors and interactions， among many other things. By this definition， the system itself is racist， so effectively addressing racism requires a system-wide approach that leaves nothing unexamined.

Racism in sum

Sociologists observe a variety of styles or types of racism within these seven different forms. Some may be overtly racist， like the use of racial slurs or hate speech， or policies that intentionally discriminate against people on the basis of race. Others may be covert， kept to oneself， hidden from public view， or obscured by color-blind policies that purport to be race-neutral， though they have racist impacts. While something may not appear obviously racist at first glance， it may， in fact， prove to be racist when one examines the implications of it through a sociological lens. If it relies on stereotypical notions of race and reproduces a racially structured society， then it is racist.

Due to the sensitive nature of race as a topic of conversation in American society， some have come to think that simply noticing race， or identifying or describing someone using race， is racist. Sociologists do not agree with this. In fact， many sociologists， race scholars， and anti-racist activists emphasize the importance of recognizing and accounting for race and racism as necessary in the pursuit of social， economic， and political justice.

種族主義指的是各種行為、觀念、社會關(guān)系及現(xiàn)象，在它們的作用下，重構(gòu)出的一種種族等級制度和社會結(jié)構(gòu)讓一些人從中得到優(yōu)勢、權(quán)力和特權(quán)，卻讓另一些人遭受歧視與壓迫。種族主義有數(shù)種形式，包括表現(xiàn)種族主義、意識形態(tài)種族主義、話語種族主義、相互種族主義、制度種族主義、結(jié)構(gòu)種族主義以及系統(tǒng)種族主義。

有關(guān)種族有別的觀念及假設被用來重構(gòu)某種社會——這種社會按種族設立等級及架構(gòu)，基于種族不公地限制資源、權(quán)益與特權(quán)的分配——并將其合理化時，種族主義便產(chǎn)生了。種族主義還出現(xiàn)于人們未能解釋種族及其在歷史和當代所扮演的社會角色，從而導致這類不公平的社會結(jié)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生之時。

與詞典里的定義相反，根據(jù)社會科學研究及理論定義的種族主義，遠不止是基于種族產(chǎn)生的偏見——若我們理解種族的方式以及基于種族做出的行為引起權(quán)力與社會地位失衡，那它就會出現(xiàn)。

種族主義的七種形式

從社會科學層面上說，種族主義有七種主要形式。這些形式很少單獨存在。相反，種族主義通常以至少兩種形式組合并同時運作。無論是獨立存在還是共同出現(xiàn)，這七種形式的種族主義都會再現(xiàn)種族主義思想、種族主義交互與行為、種族主義慣例做法與政策，以及一種總體的種族主義社會結(jié)構(gòu)。

表現(xiàn)種族主義

在流行文化和媒體中，對種族成見的描述十分常見，例如在影視行業(yè)，素來就有讓有色人種扮演罪犯或受害者而非其他角色，或者擔任配角而非主演的趨向。表現(xiàn)方式頗具種族主義意味的滑稽形象同樣屢見不鮮，例如克利夫蘭印第安人隊、亞特蘭大勇士隊以及華盛頓紅皮隊的“吉祥物”。

表現(xiàn)種族主義——或者說通過流行文化中描述不同種族的手法來表達的種族主義——能在流傳于社會、滲透進我們文化的形象中注入形形色色的種族主義理念，這些理念暗示某些種族低人一等，還經(jīng)常影射他們愚笨且不可靠。未被表現(xiàn)種族主義直接傷害到的人們或許會對它滿不在乎，然而這類形象的存在，以及我們與它們幾乎無時無刻的接觸，使得依附其中的種族主義思想得以存續(xù)。

意識形態(tài)種族主義

社會學家用意識形態(tài)一詞指代某個社會或文化中典型的世界觀、信仰和常識性思維方式。所以，意識形態(tài)種族主義是一種影響上述范疇并于其中表現(xiàn)出來的種族主義。它指的是根植于種族成見與偏見的世界觀、信仰和常識性思想。舉個令人不安的例子：美國社會中許多人（不分種族）都認為，白種人和膚色較淺的人種比膚色深的人種更聰明，并且在許多其他方面更具優(yōu)勢。

歷史上，通過在世界各地不公正地獲取土地、人口和資源，這種特殊形式的意識形態(tài)種族主義為歐洲殖民帝國的建立和美國帝國主義提供了支持與辯護。而在今天，一些常見的意識形態(tài)種族主義包括“黑人女性私生活混亂”“拉美裔女性‘性格暴躁或‘脾氣不好”“黑人男子和男孩有犯罪傾向”等觀念。這一形態(tài)的種族主義對全體有色人種都產(chǎn)生了負面影響，因為它剝奪了他們獲得教育和進入職業(yè)領(lǐng)域的通道和/或在其中獲得成功的機會，并讓他們遭受加重的警察監(jiān)控、騷擾及暴力等負面結(jié)果。

話語種族主義

在語言學層面，種族主義通常出現(xiàn)在我們談論世界和世界人民時所用到的“話語”中。這類種族主義會被表述為種族辱稱和仇恨言論，但也會作為帶有種族化含義的密語出現(xiàn)，例如ghetto（貧民窟）、thug（惡棍）或gangsta（幫派）。正如表現(xiàn)種族主義通過形象傳達種族主義思想，話語種族主義借助的是我們實際用來描述人和地點的字眼。使用依賴于種族差異成見的字眼來傳達顯性或隱性的等級觀念，會延續(xù)社會中存在的種族不平等現(xiàn)象。

相互種族主義

種族主義經(jīng)常以相互作用的形式出現(xiàn)，這意味著它會表現(xiàn)在我們彼此互動的方式之中。例如，一位走在人行道上的白人女性或者亞裔女性可能會橫穿馬路，以免近距離走過一位黑人男性或拉美裔男性身旁，因為她內(nèi)心傾向于將這類男性視作潛在威脅。如果一位有色群體人士因其種族而遭受言語上或身體上的攻擊，那這就是相互種族主義。如果一個人因為沒有認出黑人鄰居而報警稱遭遇非法闖入，又或者有人下意識假定某位有色群體人士是低級雇員或助理——雖然他有可能是一位經(jīng)理、高管或老板——那這就是相互種族主義。仇恨犯罪是此類型種族主義的最極端表現(xiàn)。日常生活中，相互種族主義給有色群體人士帶來了壓力和焦慮，造成了身心傷害。

制度種族主義

制度種族主義表現(xiàn)在通過社會制度制定并落實政策與法律的方式中，例如耗時數(shù)十年制定治安及法律政策的“毒品戰(zhàn)爭”，它在很大程度上將矛頭指向了主要由有色人種組成的街區(qū)和群體。其他的例子還包括紐約市明顯針對黑人男性和拉美裔男性的“攔截搜身”政策，房地產(chǎn)中介和抵押貸款公司不允許有色人種在特定街區(qū)擁有住宅、強制其接受較高房貸利率的慣例，以及將有色人種的孩子編入差生補習班和職業(yè)學校的教育分流政策。制度種族主義會維持并加劇不同種族在財富、教育和社會地位上的差距，還會延續(xù)白人至上主義和白人特權(quán)。

結(jié)構(gòu)種族主義

結(jié)構(gòu)種族主義指的是通過上述所有形態(tài)的組合，在當前、歷史上和長遠的將來復現(xiàn)種族化社會結(jié)構(gòu)。結(jié)構(gòu)種族主義體現(xiàn)在基于教育、收入和財富水平而廣泛存在的種族隔離與階層分化，也體現(xiàn)在有色人種一再搬離中產(chǎn)階級化街區(qū)，以及有色群體人士因其社區(qū)距離環(huán)境污染區(qū)域太近而承受著巨大負擔。結(jié)構(gòu)種族主義會導致基于種族的大規(guī)模全社會不平等現(xiàn)象。

系統(tǒng)種族主義

許多社會學家將美國的種族主義描述為“系統(tǒng)性的”，因為美國建立在種族主義觀念的基礎(chǔ)之上，而這些觀念創(chuàng)造了許多種族主義政策和慣例;也因為該傳統(tǒng)時至今日仍然存續(xù)于貫穿我們整個社會系統(tǒng)的種族主義之中。這意味著種族主義已嵌入我們社會的根基，也正因如此，它影響了社會制度、法律、政策、信仰、媒體表現(xiàn)和行為互動等諸多方面的發(fā)展。根據(jù)這一定義，這個系統(tǒng)本身就是種族主義的，因此有效地解決種族主義需要一種能覆蓋整個系統(tǒng)、不會遺漏任何細枝末節(jié)的方法。

總結(jié)

社會學家在這七種形態(tài)下觀察到了各種風格或類型的種族主義。有些可能是明顯的種族主義，比如使用種族辱稱或仇恨言論，或者基于種族故意歧視他人的政策。另一些則可能是隱秘的，限于自己的內(nèi)心，藏在公眾視線之外，或被自稱是種族中立的“色盲政策”所掩蓋，凡此種種都會產(chǎn)生種族主義影響。雖然有些東西乍看起來并未表現(xiàn)明顯的種族主義，但事實上，從社會學的視角審視它的含義時，它卻有可能是種族主義。如果它依賴于有關(guān)種族的陳舊觀念，且再現(xiàn)了一個種族結(jié)構(gòu)化社會，那么它就是種族主義。

由于種族是美國社會的一大敏感話題，一些人已經(jīng)開始覺得，僅僅注意到種族，或者用種族來識別或描述某人就是種族主義。社會學家不同意這一點。事實上，許多社會學家、種族學者和反種族主義積極人士都強調(diào)承認和解釋種族及種族主義的重要性，認為這是追求社會、經(jīng)濟和政治正義的必要條件。

（譯者為“《英語世界》杯”翻譯大賽獲獎者）

1克利夫蘭印第安人隊和亞特蘭大勇士隊均為美國職業(yè)棒球大聯(lián)盟的球隊，前者的吉祥物為瓦荷酋長，后者的吉祥物原本是由真人扮演的印第安人霍默（Homer），近年已改為爭議較小的毛絨怪物，但仍然手持象征原住民文化的紅色戰(zhàn)斧。華盛頓紅皮隊為美國職業(yè)橄欖球大聯(lián)盟的球隊，其吉祥物為紅皮膚的印第安酋長;近日迫于美國種族矛盾激化，該隊暫更名為華盛頓橄欖球隊（Washington Football Team），并承諾將改變隊徽及吉祥物。

2自從1968年轉(zhuǎn)折性的“特里訴俄亥俄州案”（Terry vs. Ohio）以來，美國警察便可以合法進行“攔截搜身”，即允許警察對街上的任何人進行攔截、盤查和搜身，只要他們能提供懷疑對方正在犯罪或?qū)⒁獙嵤┓缸锏暮侠硪罁?jù)。2012年，紐約警察局因頻頻使用“攔截搜身”而受到審查。自此，該政策經(jīng)歷了數(shù)次修改。 ?3在歐美國家和日、韓等國，成績較差的中學生在繼續(xù)深造之前，會被要求進入“補習班”，彌補其數(shù)學、閱讀、英語等基礎(chǔ)學科的不足。 ?4指職業(yè)學校。

5城市通過提供巨大的減稅優(yōu)惠等措施，來吸引開發(fā)商、高科技產(chǎn)業(yè)及創(chuàng)新階層——包括藝術(shù)家、知識分子和受過大學教育的千禧一代，促使白人開始反向流動，從郊區(qū)遷往城市，導致城市住房成本上升、財富集中在少數(shù)人手中、貧富差距拉大。這一城市中產(chǎn)階級化過程迫使部分人群轉(zhuǎn)移到遠離公共交通、就業(yè)機會、基礎(chǔ)服務和優(yōu)質(zhì)學校的惡劣郊區(qū)。 ?6此處涉及環(huán)境種族主義（Environmental racism），指環(huán)境污染物與低收入或少數(shù)族裔社區(qū)間存在地理上的聯(lián)系。數(shù)據(jù)表明，在美國有毒物場所越集中的地方，少數(shù)族裔的比例就越高。