美國(guó)種族主義簡(jiǎn)史

薩馬納·西迪基

Racism is the belief that ones race， skin color， or more generally， ones group， be it of religious， national or ethnic identity， is superior to others in humanity. It has been part of the American landscape primarily since the European colonization of North America beginning in the 17th century. Various groups have bore the brunt of it， manifested in discriminatory laws， social practices， and criminal behavior directed toward a target group. The following are a list of just a few and their experiences.

Racism against Native Americans： with the Europeans arrival on North Americas shores and their systematic plan to subdue and conquer its land， came racism and bigotry against Native Americans. Europeans believed the original inhabitants of America were heathens and savages who needed to be civilized through Christianity and European culture. This led to genocide， mass murder， stolen land， attempts to wipe out Native American traditions， as well as forced assimilation through institutions like residential schools and the establishment of “Indian reservations”. As well， media portrayal of this continents first inhabitants as bloodthirsty savages helped justify European abuses against Native Americans. The long-term effects， among others， of this treatment include the fact that today， Native Americans have the highest suicide rate of any group in the United States， according to the National Institute of Mental Health.

Racism against African-Americans： many of the Africans brought to America starting in the 17th century arrived as slaves， kidnapped from their homelands in various parts of Africa. A number of them were known to be royalty and literate. African men， women， and children were stripped of their names and identities， forced to “Christianize”， whipped， beaten， tortured， and in many cases， lynched or hanged at the whims of their white masters， for whom slavery was key to maintaining their vast properties and land. Families were separated through the process of buying and selling slaves. While not all Africans in America were slaves， a large number were， particularly in the southern states. For those Africans in America who were free， discriminatory laws that barred them from owning property and voting， for example， as well as the belief in the intrinsic inferiority of dark-skinned peoples by the dominant white majority， held them back from full equality in the United States.

Although slavery was ultimately outlawed and laws prohibiting discrimination against African-Americans passed， racism against this community remains and is manifested in more subtle ways today. For example， the Washington， DC， Fair Employment Practices Commission has found that blacks face discrimination in one out of every five job interviews. The American Sociological Association notes that， “today employers use different phases of the hiring process to discriminate against minorities （e.g.， recruiting from primarily white schools instead of through job training programs） and offer higher status jobs and pay to white employees. Reports of job discrimination against African Americans are correlated with darker complexion， higher education， immigrant status， and young age.”

Jewish-Americans： Although Jews first arrived in America over 300 years ago and enjoyed a certain level of religious freedom， anti-Semitism was acceptable and common socially， as well as legally in some cases. For example， some states in the late 18th century barred those who were not Christian from voting or holding public office. However， these barriers were later removed， especially with the enactment of the Bill of Rights.

As well， during the Holocaust in Europe during the 1940s， a ship of over 900 primarily German Jewish refugees was denied permission to land on U.S. soil， based on the exclusionary Immigration Act of 1924. Only one-third of the passengers， who were forced to return to Europe， survived the genocide of Jews on the continent at the time.

The Ku Klux Kan， one of the most virulent and violent hate groups in America， did not just direct their rage at African-Americans. Jews were also a target.

As well， discrimination against Jews was practiced in some cases in the workforce， and they were not permitted entry into a number of resort areas and social clubs. Colleges also practiced discrimination by limiting their enrolment. In a number of cases， Jews were forbidden from buying certain types of property.

Islamophobia is the term that has been coined to describe the current hostility toward Islam and Muslims in the United States， manifested in prejudice， harassment and discrimination. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life found last year that positive opinions of Islam among Americans have declined since 2005. Islamophobia intensified after the 9/11 terror attacks， as well as the subsequent wars on Afghanistan and Iraq. Muslims in the United States over the last decade have been subject to 700，000 interviews by the FBI， wiretapping， phone surveillance， and racial profiling1. Added to this is the rhetoric of hate and misinformation fueled by so-called terrorism experts， right-wing authors， television and radio talk show hosts and personalities， as well as countless blogs and websites that demonize Islam and Muslims and automatically link them to terrorism.

種族主義是指這樣一種觀念：認(rèn)為一個(gè)人的種族、膚色或更普遍地說(shuō)，其族群，無(wú)論從宗教、國(guó)籍還是民族身份來(lái)看，都比其他種族高貴。自17世紀(jì)歐洲對(duì)北美洲進(jìn)行殖民統(tǒng)治以來(lái)，種族主義就成為美國(guó)的主要國(guó)情。多個(gè)族裔都深受其害，具體表現(xiàn)為歧視性法律、社會(huì)習(xí)俗以及針對(duì)某一目標(biāo)群體的犯罪行為。下面將列出部分族裔及他們所遭受的種族主義經(jīng)歷。

針對(duì)美洲原住民的種族主義：隨著歐洲人抵達(dá)北美海岸，以及他們征服北美大陸系列計(jì)劃的實(shí)施，針對(duì)美洲原住民的種族主義和偏見(jiàn)也隨之而來(lái)。歐洲人認(rèn)為，美洲原住民都是異教徒和野蠻人，必須受到基督教和歐洲文化的教化。這導(dǎo)致了一系列行徑：種族滅絕、大屠殺、土地侵占、企圖摧毀原住民文化傳統(tǒng)，以及通過(guò)寄宿學(xué)校之類(lèi)的機(jī)構(gòu)和建立“印第安人保留地”來(lái)強(qiáng)迫同化原住民。同時(shí)，媒體將這片大陸的首批居民描述為嗜血的野蠻人，進(jìn)一步證明歐洲人對(duì)美洲原住民進(jìn)行迫害的合理性。美國(guó)國(guó)家心理健康研究所的數(shù)據(jù)顯示，這種迫害帶來(lái)的長(zhǎng)期影響包括：如今，美國(guó)原住民的自殺率是美國(guó)所有群體中最高的。

針對(duì)非裔美國(guó)人的種族主義：17世紀(jì)以來(lái)，許多非洲人在自己的家鄉(xiāng)被綁架，以奴隸身份被帶到美國(guó)，他們來(lái)自非洲各地，其中許多人被認(rèn)為是皇室成員并且受過(guò)教育。非洲人，無(wú)論男人女人還是兒童，都被剝奪了姓名和身份，被迫接受“基督教化”，被鞭撻、毆打和折磨，在許多情況下，被白人奴隸主隨意處以私刑或絞死。對(duì)白人奴隸主而言，奴隸制對(duì)于維持他們大片的莊園和土地至關(guān)重要。在買(mǎi)賣(mài)奴隸的過(guò)程中，許多家庭被迫分離。盡管并非所有在美國(guó)的非洲人都曾是奴隸，但他們當(dāng)中很多人都曾是，尤其是在南部各州。對(duì)于那些自由的在美國(guó)的非洲人而言，歧視性法律禁止他們擁有財(cái)產(chǎn)和投票權(quán)，同時(shí)，占主導(dǎo)地位且數(shù)量占多數(shù)的白人相信，膚色偏深的民族生來(lái)就低人一等，這些使他們無(wú)法在美國(guó)享有完全平等的權(quán)利。

盡管美國(guó)最終廢除了奴隸制，通過(guò)了禁止歧視非裔美國(guó)人的法律，但針對(duì)這個(gè)群體的種族主義仍然存在，并且在今天以更微妙的方式呈現(xiàn)出來(lái)。例如，華盛頓特區(qū)公平就業(yè)實(shí)施委員會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，黑人在每五次工作面試中就有一次受到歧視。美國(guó)社會(huì)學(xué)協(xié)會(huì)指出：“如今，雇主在招聘的不同階段歧視少數(shù)群體（例如，從白人為主的學(xué)校招募，而不是通過(guò)職業(yè)培訓(xùn)計(jì)劃），向白人雇員提供更高地位的工作和更高的薪酬。據(jù)稱(chēng)，膚色較深、受教育程度較高、擁有移民身份及年齡較小的非裔美國(guó)人更易受到就業(yè)歧視。”

猶太裔美國(guó)人：盡管猶太人早在300多年前就來(lái)到美國(guó)，并且享有一定程度的宗教自由，但反猶太主義卻被社會(huì)接受且普遍存在，在某些情況下也是合法的。例如，18世紀(jì)后期，有些州禁止非基督教教徒參加選舉或擔(dān)任公職。但是，這些禁令后來(lái)都被解除了，尤其是在《人權(quán)法案》頒布之后。

此外，20世紀(jì)40年代歐洲大屠殺期間，一艘載有900多名難民（主要是德裔猶太人）的船只，按照1924年排斥性的《移民法》規(guī)定，被拒絕登陸美國(guó)本土。最后，乘客被迫返回歐洲，只有三分之一的乘客在當(dāng)時(shí)歐洲大陸的猶太人種族滅絕中幸存下來(lái)。

三K黨，美國(guó)最殘暴的仇恨團(tuán)體之一，不僅將怒火發(fā)泄到非裔美國(guó)人身上，也把猶太人當(dāng)作打擊目標(biāo)。

在某些情況下，勞動(dòng)力市場(chǎng)中也存在對(duì)猶太人的歧視，許多度假區(qū)和社交俱樂(lè)部不允許猶太人進(jìn)入。大學(xué)也通過(guò)對(duì)猶太人限制招生來(lái)實(shí)行歧視。許多情況下，猶太人被禁止購(gòu)買(mǎi)某些類(lèi)型的資產(chǎn)。

“伊斯蘭教恐懼癥”這一新造詞用來(lái)形容目前美國(guó)方面對(duì)伊斯蘭教和穆斯林的敵意，表現(xiàn)為偏見(jiàn)、騷擾和歧視。皮尤宗教與公共生活論壇去年發(fā)現(xiàn)，2005年以來(lái)，美國(guó)人對(duì)伊斯蘭教的正面看法有所下降。9·11恐怖襲擊及隨后美國(guó)分別對(duì)阿富汗和伊拉克發(fā)動(dòng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)之后，伊斯蘭教恐懼癥加劇。過(guò)去10年，美國(guó)的穆斯林受到聯(lián)邦調(diào)查局70萬(wàn)次約談，還遭受竊聽(tīng)、電話(huà)監(jiān)視和種族形象定性。此外，所謂的恐怖主義專(zhuān)家、右翼作家、電視和廣播脫口秀主持人和名人都煽動(dòng)仇恨情緒，散布不實(shí)言論，無(wú)數(shù)博客和網(wǎng)站也將伊斯蘭教和穆斯林妖魔化，并自動(dòng)將他們和恐怖主義聯(lián)系起來(lái)。

[譯者單位：中國(guó)石油大學(xué)（北京）]