摘 要:英語段落的線性特征與層狀結構分析是語篇分析的重要內容,弄清段落內的句子與句子之間的邏輯關系,把握段落的框架結構,將有助于透徹理解文章內涵,快速提高學生的英語閱讀能力。
關鍵詞:語篇分析 段落結構 線性特征 層狀結構 閱讀能力
閱讀是通過視覺感知語言信息信號后大腦處理、加工與理解信息意義的心理過程。克拉克夫婦(1978)認為:對語言輸入中詞、短語和句子的理解是第一層次的理解。這一理解被稱為構建過程;同時讀者還要進行第二層次的理解,即不僅要了解字面意義,還要了解作者的意圖。克拉克夫婦將此稱之為利用過程。很顯然,第二層次的理解是建立在第一層次理解的基礎之上的。沒有一定的語言基礎知識,分不清段落結構,即使有很強的母語閱讀技巧,也很難把握作者的意圖、段落的主旨。而目前很多學生的閱讀方式是逐字逐字式的(word for word),這種摳字眼式的閱讀雖然能加強對局部意義的理解,但對語篇理解是不利的,整體意義則顯得支離破碎,且閱讀效率低下,無助于閱讀能力的提高。
因此,文章段落的理解與把握是閱讀理解中基礎而又重要的問題,因為段落是語篇的重要組成部分。本文將從語篇分析中的段落結構角度出發,來說明把握段落結構將有助于閱讀能力的提高。
一、段落的線性特征與層狀結構
自從索緒爾在二十世紀初創立了結構主義語言學以來,人們對語言研究的范圍開始轉向了比詞更大的單位-段落與篇章。1976年韓禮德-哈桑合著的《英語中的銜接》(Cohesion in English)一書為篇章結構研究開創了新局面。他們提出了銜接理論。認為語篇內的句子與句子之間是通過所指(reference)、替換(substitution)、省略(ellipsis)、連接詞語(conjunction)和詞匯銜接(lexical cohesion)五種手段來銜接的。這五種手段在語言層面上表現為語法手段、詞匯銜接及邏輯聯系語。通過這些段落中的紐帶,可清晰地看出段落的線性結構。
“在人類語言中,每個語篇都是由排列成一直線的句子組成。”“語言的線形表現這一特征決定了發話者在傳遞信息時必須考慮語言結構的排列。無論從銜接角度還是從連貫角度,句子內各成分的排列和句子之間的配列都是有一定的規律的,都是受到制約的。一般來說,在語言結構的安排上,要遵循從已知(old)到未知(new);從確定(definite)到不確定(indefinite)的原則。”(黃國文1988)
英語語篇的“直線型”的思維模式首先反映在段落中。英語的段落一般按一條直線展開。往往先陳述中心意思,而后分點說明。Durik等(1985)在討論段落內句子直線性發展的連接方式時認為,英語段落中句子與句子之間有以下三種的基本關系結構:1. 一般與特殊(general and particular);2. 遞進(progression);3. 相容(compatibility)。一般與特殊指的是敘述從一般出發,然后討論特殊;遞進關系指的是以時間先后,推理起結等為序;相容主要表現為匹配(matching)和對比(contrast)。可見段落中的意思以有秩序的順序清晰地互相聯系。在展開中心意思的過程中,段落中的每一個句子應該順其自然地從每一個前面的句子產生出來。從理想的角度看,這樣的段落有一種運動的感覺,即“流動感覺”。(王昭2002)。如:
Tom gets up at six in the morning .He dresses,washes and goes out to do morning exercises. Then he has breakfast. 這是以時間為序的線性關系結構。
有時作者為了表達更為復雜的觀點時,還要作縱向闡述。這樣段落的結構在線性的基礎上呈現了層狀的狀態。Bander(1978)在《美國英語修辭》一書中介紹道:“英文段落通常以一個包含中心思想的陳述句開始,稱為主題句(topic sentence)然后把主題句的內容劃分為一系列句子加以說明。”Ram-say(1986)也在《學術英語閱讀基礎技巧》一書中指出:“每一個段落有一個主題和中心思想。許多段落有主題句。主題句常常是段落的第一句,但它也可以在段落的結尾和中間部分。”(王楓林 2000)
這些特征在結構層面上表現為段落的層狀結構。“層次關系中的句子層層積累,而又上下照應。句子不是橫向直線發展,而是有一種縱向的層次結構。這種語篇通常由幾個層次的句子組成,并且有一個基礎(常稱作主題句topic sentence)把不同的層次貫穿起來。這樣,語篇中的句子雖然并不處于同一層次上,但它們卻圍繞著一個中心。”(黃國文 1988)
例如:San Francisco Chinatown played an important part in the life of the early Chinese immigrant. Within Chinatown,he was surrounded by people who spoke his language and understood his ways. Within Chinatown,the theaters,restaurants,gambling halls,pleasure palaces,and even opium parlors offered a way of escaping from the everyday trials of his work filled life. Within Chinatown,festivals like the gay and fancy New Year’s Festival helped him to break the routine of his work. These festivals provided times for blowing off steam,for releasing bottled up feelings. 第一句為主題句(topic sentence),其他句子從三個不同方面來進行展開,這些句子叫支撐句(supporting sentences)。
二、從段落的層狀結構分析入手,提高閱讀理解能力
大家知道每個段落都有一個主題(main idea),主題常常由主題句(topic sentence)來體現,段落的展開要圍繞著這個主題來進行。段落除了有一個主題句(topic sentence)以外,往往還有次主題句(minor idea sentences),及用來論證、說明的支撐句子(supporting sentences)。在閱讀時,這種清晰的段落層狀結構給讀者帶來了方便。本文中我們把主題句(topic sentence)看作第一層次的語句(the first-power sentences),次主題句(minor sentences)看作第二層次的語句(the second-power sentences),支撐句(supporting sentences)看作第三層次的語句(the third-power sentences)。
Topic sentence(s) →the first-power sentence(s)
Minor sentence(s)→the second-power sentence(s)
Supporting sentence(s) →the third-power sentence(s)
例如:
①Language majors often have trouble writing in the language they are learning because of a combination of bad habits and high pressure. ②To start with,students don’t practice. ③This is partly because of time limitations:learning to write is time consuming,and students already have a very heavy workload.④Some students do have the time to practice but fail to do so because writing in the high-pressure atmosphere of college produces anxiety and tension. ⑤Many students are so afraid of the difficult work that they avoid writing altogether-until the day before the paper is due. ⑥Furthermore,college papers are usually done under time pressure,which simply increases the tension of writing.
The first power sentence:①
The second power sentence:② ⑥
The third power sentence:③ ④ ⑤
_______________①______________
_________②________⑥__________
______③______④______⑤_______
作者首先在段首提出觀點:由于不良的寫作習慣及學習壓力,使得一些語言專業的學生不能運用自己所主修的語言進行寫作。首先,文章從兩大方面來進行說明。1. 學生不練習寫作;2. 寫作考試的時間限制增加了寫作的焦慮。而后,作者對學生為什么不練習寫作,又分別從三個不同方面來進一步說明。①作業過重,時間緊;②有些學生雖有時間可練習,但由于緊張的校園氛圍帶來的不安,致使寫作練習無法完成;③還有很多同學本身對寫作有恐懼感。這樣全段層層遞進,環環相扣,很好地例證了作者的觀點。
主題句在段中的位置一般有5種情況:段首,段中,段尾,段首與段尾,無主題句。如下圖所示:

圖1表示的主題句在段首;圖2表示的主題句在段尾;圖3表示的主題句在段中;圖4表示的主題句在段首及段尾;圖5表示的是無主題句,主題隱含在段落之中。
下面以主題句在段落中的不同位置來作進一步的分析
1. 主題句位于段首
作者一開始就提出觀點,而后作例證、說明。如:
①There are three main kinds of mountains. ②One is volcanic. ③This is formed by the eruption of lava from within the earth. ④A second is the block mountain. ⑤This is formed by the cracking and shifting of the earth’s crust. ⑥A third type is the folded mountain.⑦ This is formed by the crumpling of the cracked and shifted rock.
The first power sentence:①
The second power sentence:②④⑥
The third power sentence:③⑤⑦

2. 主題句在段中
作者先引出次要觀點,而后提出主題,然后再例證、說明。如:
①The Bushmen in south Africa were food gathers and skilled hunters. ②They lived in small clans of fifty to three hundred people under the rule of a headman. ③They were one of two distinct cultural groups in south Africa during the mid seventeenth century. ④The other group was the Hottentots,nomadic cattle herders. ⑤The Hottentots were organized in small clans,each under the direction of an hereditary chief.
The first power sentence:③
The second power sentence:①④
The third power sentence:②⑤

3. 主題句在段尾
作者先分析說明,最后總結。如:
①One unusual flying machine is the skimmer. ②This has no wings and looks like a boat. ③Another is the flying bed. ④With four legs and no wings,it actually looks like a bed. ⑤A thirdis the two in one. ⑥The two in one flies on wings like an airplane,but it also stands on its tail. ⑦A fourth is the hoppi copter. ⑧This is a little helicopter attached to a person’s back. ⑨These are a few of the various types of interesting flying machines that the United States has already developed.
The first power sentence:⑨
The second power sentence:①③⑤⑦
The third power sentence: ②④⑥⑧

4. 主題句在段首和段尾
先在段首提出觀點,而后例證;為了增加說服力,在結尾處再一次總結強調。如:
①Spanish-speaking Americans fall into four large groups. ②One group,the largest,is the Mexican American. ③This group came across the Rio Grande and settles in the Southwest. ④Puerto Ricans,the second group,settled mainly in New York city. ⑤The Voting Rights Act of 1965 gave them,along with other language speaking citizens,the right to vote without having to read and write English. ⑥Cubans,the third group,arrived in the early 1960’s. ⑦They were fleeing from Castro’s Cuba.⑧ Filipinos,the fourth group,settled mainly on the West coast. ⑨These four groups of Spanish speaking Americans make up one of the largest minority groups in the nation.
The first power sentence:①⑨
The second power sentence:②④⑥⑧
The third power sentence:③⑤⑦

5. 無主題句(隱含的主題句)
整個段落無明顯的主題句,所有語句都由一個隱含的主題來統率,形成一個整體。段內的任何一個語句都不能單獨表達段落的主題。段落的主題需要讀者自己去歸納總結。如:
①Both the lens of a camera and the lens of the human eye focus the light from an object. ②The camera lens is moved forward or backward until a sharp image falls exactly on the film;the lens of the eye has a muscle that changes the thickness of the lens for focus. ③Both pass light through a lightproof chamber. ④Both from an upside down picture of the object being viewed which,in man’s case,is corrected and made rightside up.
The first power sentence: implied
The second power sentence:①③④
The third power sentence②

The implied topic sentence should be:The lens of a camera and the lens of the human eye are much alike.
從以上的段落層狀結構分析可以看出,不同層次的句子之間往往有一定的銜接詞。通過這些銜接詞讀者可以看出句子與句子之間的邏輯關系。這些詞,有些語言學家把它們叫“信號詞”(signals)。它們是理解語篇的“金鑰匙”。
我們把連接第二層次句子的銜接詞叫the second-stage words
我們把連接第三層次句子的銜接詞叫 the third-stage words
常見的the second-stage words有:
first(ly),second(ly),third(ly),moreover,more than that,besides,furthermore,also,likewise,again,next,then,in addition to,some,others,still others,above all,another,equally,finally,lastly .etc.
常見的the third-stage words有:
that is,that is to say,nearly,specially,in such cases,this can be clarified,for example,to be specific,for instance,in other words,this can be explained,this can be made clearer,it should be noted,in such situations,it is necessary to pause here to .etc.
三、段落結構的層狀分析對閱讀教學的啟示
教學實踐證明:段落結構的層狀分析,對于幫助學生理解文章,認清段落的主干和枝葉,做到合理、正確地推
理、判斷,提高閱讀理解能力具有一定的現實意義。通過使用段落結構分析方法,段落內句子與句子之間的相互1關系和領屬層次便清晰地展現在學生面前,使他們感到文章層次分明,脈絡清晰,中心突出,主題一目了然。
由于段落結構的層狀分析屬于整個語篇分析的低層,在具體的閱讀教學中,要把段落結構的層狀分析放到整個語篇中去完成。不僅要注意段落內的句列關系,還要注意段落與段落之間的邏輯關系,因為篇章是個語義整體單位。
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