李昂 高一平 孫燕燕
摘要:近年來,隨著我國工業快速發展,能源的高消耗,空氣污染問題已成為令人擔憂的環境問題之一。霧霾現象日益嚴重,作為霧霾中最重要的致病物質-PM2.5的污染已成為我國一個嚴重的環境問題。其通過炎癥反應、氧化應激、誘導自噬和細胞凋亡等方式引起呼吸系統疾病。兒童正處于生長發育期,屬于PM2.5高度敏感的人群之一。PM2.5可隨呼吸進入患兒氣管甚至肺部,導致下呼吸道感染、哮喘、鼻炎、結核等呼吸系統發病率升高。但目前尚無很好的解決辦法完全消除PM2.5造成的危害,未來還需要更多的研究進一步驗證PM2.5的致病機制及其與兒童呼吸系統疾病的關系,并制訂有效的預防措施和治療方案。本文就PM2.5的來源及特征、致病機制及對兒童呼吸系統相關疾病的影響進行綜述,旨在為臨床研究提供參考。
關鍵詞:PM2.5;來源及特征;致病機制;兒童;呼吸系統疾病
中圖分類號:R122.2;R56? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 文獻標識碼:A? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1006-1959.2019.11.009
文章編號:1006-1959(2019)11-0029-07
Abstract:In recent years, with the rapid development of China's industry and the high consumption of energy, air pollution has become one of the worrying environmental problems. The haze phenomenon has become increasingly serious, and the pollution of PM2.5, the most important pathogenic substance in smog, has become a serious environmental problem in China. PM2.5 causes respiratory diseases through inflammatory reactions, oxidative stress, induced autophagy, and apoptosis. The child is in the growth stage and is one of the highly sensitive people in PM2.5. PM2.5 can enter the child's trachea and even the lungs with breathing, leading to an increase in the incidence of respiratory diseases such as lower respiratory tract infections, asthma, rhinitis, and tuberculosis. However, there is no good solution to completely eliminate the harm caused by PM2.5. In the future, more research is needed to further verify the pathogenic mechanism of PM2.5 and its relationship with respiratory diseases in children, and to develop effective preventive measures. And treatment options. This article reviews the sources and characteristics of PM2.5, the pathogenesis and effects on children's respiratory related diseases, and aims to provide reference for clinical research.
Key words:PM2.5;Source and characteristics;Pathogenic mechanism;Children;Respiratory diseases
隨著我國經濟的快速發展,大氣污染問題日益嚴重。空氣污染是整個大氣層中污染物相互傳播的復雜過程。目前已經發現空氣污染會導致人類各種疾病及其他生命體中的紊亂,進而破壞自然環境[1,2]。其中空氣污染中的顆粒物(PM)污染被已經被證明與嚴重的公共衛生問題具有高度的相關性[3,4]。PM根據其空氣動力學直徑進行分類,這種分類方式可作為評估其穿透呼吸道能力的金標準[5]。PM主要歸類為粗顆粒物(PM10),即中位數為空氣動力學直徑≤10 μm的顆粒物;細顆粒物(PM2.5),即中位數為空氣動力學直徑≤2.5 μm的顆粒物[6]。PM進入呼吸道的程度主要取決于其物理尺寸及人體的呼吸模式、速率和其他個體因素[7]。直徑較小的PM(如PM2.5)可以以更高的速率穿透呼吸道并進入更深的位置,沉積在支氣管和肺泡,影響肺功能,最終引起其他疾病[8]。2006年,世界衛生組織將PM2.5作為大氣污染顆粒物的重要指標。大量文獻報道[9-14],PM2.5與各種心腦血管疾病、呼吸系統疾病及免疫系統疾病關系密切。兒童各組織發育均不夠完善,免疫功能相對低下,更易受到PM2.5的危害。因此本文就PM2.5的來源及特征、致病機制及對兒童呼吸系統相關疾病的影響進行綜述,旨在為臨床研究提供參考。
1 PM2.5的來源及特征
PM2.5是指在空氣中飄浮的平均空氣動力學直徑小于或等于2.5 μm的可吸入顆粒物。在我國,室外PM2.5主要來源于燃料燃燒等人為活動,如工業部門煤炭的燃燒、機動車尾氣的排放、金屬冶煉、道路揚塵,農業粉塵,建筑工地,采礦作業等過程[15-17];室內PM2.5主要來源于吸煙、取暖、烹調等活動。城市大氣中PM2.5的來源非常復雜,主要可分為初級和次級來源,其中主要來源是指各種來源的直接排放,如燃燒源;次級來源來自大氣中化學過程產生的顆粒,其氧化原始氣態組分,如硫酸鹽等。PM2.5多為固體和液體顆粒的混合物,包括碳黑,金屬,硝酸鹽,硫酸鹽,多環芳烴和汽車尾氣顆粒等[18]。
2致病機制
PM的大小受各種物理、生物、化學的影響,可導致多種疾病[6]。PM2.5顆粒小、活性強,可以沉積在肺泡,另外這些物質包含多種毒性物質和污染物,像硝酸鹽、硫酸鹽、酸性物質和金屬,均可以導致應激、炎癥反應及過敏反應[19]。Liu Q等[20]的研究認為暴露于PM2.5環境中的兒童呼吸系統疾病的發病率比成人更高,可能與兒童和成人呼吸道結構的差異有關,兒童不成熟的呼吸系統對PM2.5更敏感。
2.1炎癥反應和氧化應激? PM2.5誘導炎癥反應和氧化應激。有報道稱,PM2.5可誘導健康小鼠肺氧化應激反應和炎癥反應[21]。Longhin E等[22]將BEAS-2B細胞暴露于PM2.5的環境中,發現PM2.5可以引起細胞周期的改變,導致P450代謝活性增強,產生大量的活性氧自由基(reactive oxygen species,ROS),誘發細胞凋亡及死亡,DNA單鏈、雙鏈斷裂,增加DNA損傷,線粒體結構及細胞骨架失去功能。氧化應激能夠調節關鍵的信號轉導途徑,包括NF-κB信號傳導和組蛋白修飾,在肺部炎癥中起重要作用的改變[23]。PM2.5已被證明可增加炎性細胞因子受體的表達,這些受體能夠激活肺細胞中IL-1受體和IL-6R受體介導的信號通路[24]。Li R等[25]發現,短期暴露于PM2.5,可誘導小鼠炎癥細胞浸潤和肺組織充血,增加炎癥介質的表達,包括TNF-α,IL-6和IL-1β以及癌基因,調節各種代謝酶活性,包括超氧化物歧化酶和硝酸鹽氧化物合成酶。實驗證實PM2.5可增加NF-E2相關因子-2(Nrf-2)表達水平;在患有慢性阻塞型肺疾病(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,COPD)的小鼠中,Nrf-2與氧化應激有關[26]。Yan Z等[27]觀察到PM2.5暴露可增加體外IL-8的表達,其由氧化應激和內吞作用介導。另有研究表明,暴露于PM2.5的亞慢性(PM2.5氣管滴注,每周1次,1,3或6個月)COPD小鼠中也檢測到TNF-α和IL-6的表達增強,且細胞因子過度表達能夠加重免疫系統的損害[28]。此外,有實驗證明PM2.5可損害肺泡巨噬細胞(alveolar macrophage,AM)的吞噬功能,從而增加氧化應激[29,30]。PM2.5還通過阻斷Notch信號通路來損害COPD小鼠的免疫平衡[30]。將鼻粘膜上皮細胞暴露于PM2.5,能夠增加ROS和Nrf-2水平,這與氧化應激有關[31]。Bekki K等[32]的研究表明,PM2.5增加了TNF-α和IL-13的釋放,加速了炎癥反應。炎癥和氧化應激的過程是通過不同的途徑發生,不同的PM來源可能導致不同的ROS產生能力[33]。為探討PM2.5在哮喘發病機制中的作用,Zhang X等[34]將哮喘模型小鼠暴露于PM2.5,檢測到IL-4和IL-10的含量升高,考慮是由TNF-α和Th-2細胞增加,伴隨著Th-1介導的INF-γ含量降低。PM2.5暴露會加速炎癥浸潤和杯狀細胞化生。Zhao C等[35]研究表明,PM2.5暴露后涉及TLR-2和TLR-4急性炎癥反應,并且還檢測到Th-2介導的免疫應答。此外,PM也被證明誘導健康小鼠Th-1/2細胞的炎癥反應,導致哮喘的初始發作[36]。
2.2誘導自噬和細胞凋亡? PM2.5誘導自噬和細胞凋亡。自噬是指通過自噬囊泡包裹受損蛋白質或真核細胞的細胞器,然后進行溶酶體降解和再循環[37]。自噬在急變細胞過程中起著重要作用,包括細胞饑餓和細胞感染[38]。作為一種自我破壞活動,細胞凋亡在組織穩態、胚胎發育和器官發生中起著重要作用[39]。自噬和凋亡途徑之間的串擾已經在細胞命運決策中得到了表現[40,41]。Caspases是一組半胱氨酸蛋白酶,也是細胞凋亡調節劑,在自噬和細胞凋亡之間的串擾中發揮作用[42]。關鍵的自噬蛋白,包括Beclin-1和自噬相關蛋白5,可能激活半胱天冬酶降解酶,從而減弱自噬反應[43,44]。此外,自噬能夠通過改變半胱天冬酶蛋白的水平和活性來調節細胞凋亡[45]。PM2.5暴露可誘導巨噬細胞自噬并介導Src/STAT-3信號通路,增加VEGF-A的表達[46]。Liu T等[47]提出雷帕霉素激酶信號通路的磷酸肌醇3-激酶/Akt/機制靶點可能在暴露于PM2.5的BEAS-2B細胞自噬中發揮重要作用。PM2.5能夠通過激活AMPK信號通路誘導A549細胞的自噬[48]。自噬作為保護機制,可防止PM2.5的進一步損害[49]。PM2.5誘導炎性細胞浸潤和肺泡細胞自噬,且還可改變肺泡上皮細胞的細胞周期來誘導細胞凋亡。大量研究表明[22,50,51],PM2.5能夠通過破壞DNA雙鏈并激活p53/視網膜母細胞瘤信號通路來誘導有絲分裂停滯。同時,能激活TNF-α信號通路并操縱p53,B細胞淋巴瘤2(Bcl-2)和Bcl-2相關X蛋白的轉錄,導致肺泡上皮細胞凋亡[52,53]。
3對兒童呼吸系統相關疾病的影響
PM2.5對呼吸系統影響的機制尚不完全清楚。PM2.5顆粒較小,很容易被吸入呼吸道并沉積在肺泡中,其中的有毒顆粒可能導致肺部結構損傷和功能缺陷,PM2.5中的小部分甚至可以滲透到氣道的最深處。大量流行病學和實驗研究表明[54-57],PM2.5增加了呼吸系統疾病,住院率和急診就診的風險,加重了慢性呼吸系統疾病,降低肺功能。PM2.5中的細菌、內毒素、真菌孢子等進入呼吸道可能導致呼吸系統感染的發生[58]。而兒童呼吸系統發育不夠完善,免疫功能相對低下,更易受到PM2.5的危害。
3.1下呼吸道感染? 呼吸道感染有70%~80%是由病毒引起的,下呼吸道感染是兒科較為常見的呼吸系統疾病。這類疾病主要是由病毒、細菌的感染,物理、化學刺激及過敏反應造成的。PM2.5顆粒物具有直徑小、速度快,通過性強的特點。包裹著大量有毒物質、細菌、病毒的PM2.5顆粒物與兒童的下呼吸道感染有著密切關系[59,60]。盡管在全球各個國家對下呼吸道感染的預防取得了重大進展,但全球由于下呼吸道感染導致死亡的5歲以下兒童占總死亡人數的16%,每年約有2000萬例患兒需要住院治療[61]。Horne BD等[62]通過對112467名0~2歲的兒童研究發現,其中77%的兒童患下呼吸道感染的幾率在PM2.5升高后1周內增加,并且在3周后達到峰值。Bates MN等[63]通過對2~35個月的兒童群體進行回歸性分析表明,廚房中生物質爐子產生PM2.5的濃度與患下呼吸道感染的風險成超線性相關。2010年,在我國與PM2.5相關的127萬過早死亡病例中,有3995例五歲以下兒童因急性下呼吸道感染死亡[64]。Jedrychowski WA等[65]研究結果表明,孕婦產前暴露于PM2.5可增加兒童早期急性支氣管、肺部感染的易感性。Bergstra AD等[66]通過對787名在重工業區附近的學齡兒童(7~13歲)的肺功能和健康狀況調查進行線性和回歸分析研究,結果表明PM2.5暴露與肺功能的降低和呼吸癥狀存在關聯性。另有研究結果表明,PM2.5濃度的升高對患兒發生毛細支氣管炎、肺炎、哮喘和支氣管炎以及其他呼吸道感染疾病均產生負面影響[67]。
3.2哮喘? 哮喘由某種刺激引起支氣管(輸送空氣到肺部)收縮引起的。近年來,環境中的顆粒物(如PM2.5)與哮喘之間的關系越來越受到關注。PM2.5導致兒童和成年哮喘患者的患病率和癥狀嚴重程度增加[68]。環境暴露是哮喘發生和惡化的關鍵因素[69]。室內環境可能含有影響哮喘發展和發病的污染物。城市兒童暴露于各種室內過敏原和污染物,導致哮喘發展甚至出現哮喘惡化[70]。潛在的暴露(來自害蟲,小鼠,塵螨,煙草煙霧,內毒素和二氧化氮)同樣可以影響哮喘發展。一項針對23326名中國兒童哮喘和發病率的橫斷面研究中,居住在空氣污染嚴重地區的患者哮喘和哮喘相關癥狀的患病率較高,并且使用通氣設備與兒童哮喘發病幾率降低有關[71]。孫劍玥[72]選取5~18歲哮喘患者共96例,通過檢查對比各組患者的哮喘控制率和控制時間、血清IL-25、胸腺基質淋巴細胞生成素、丙二醛含量、肺功能等各項生理指標,結果表明通過控制空氣中PM2.5含量可改善哮喘的發病情況和治療效果。任燕[73]通過觀察宜賓市200例哮喘患兒發現,PM2.5濃度升高可使哮喘患兒的外周血嗜酸性粒細胞數升高,且1個月、3個月、半年再次發病率也呈升高趨勢。
3.3過敏性鼻炎? 過敏性鼻炎(allergic rhinitis,AR)是最常見的慢性過敏性疾病[74]。近幾十年來,包括中國在內的兒童AR患病率不斷增加[75]。該疾病不是嚴重的病癥,因此經常被忽視,特別是在診療條件不足的發展中國家。AR可以導致哮喘,鼻竇炎和中耳炎等更嚴重的上下呼吸道并發癥[76]。除了高發病率和大量的醫療保健費用,AR影響兒童的心理健康、生活質量和在校學習[73]。越來越多的證據表明遺傳和環境因素,包括AR在內的過敏性疾病在病因學中起重要作用,但遺傳因素并不能使其患病率迅速增加,因此環境因素是過敏性疾病發病的重要原因。除此之外,長期暴露于空氣污染,同樣導致過敏性疾病的發展[77,78]。PM2.5顆粒物包含多種毒性物質和污染物,像硝酸鹽、硫酸鹽、酸性物質和重金屬等。有大量文獻報道,PM2.5暴露與AR具有相關性[79-81]。一些短期流行病學研究表明,PM2.5與AR的門診就診之間存在密切聯系[82-84]。Norback D等[85]通過對17679例3~6歲中國兒童的室內和室外環境與喘息和鼻炎的患病率、發病率和緩解率之間的關系進行研究,并根據日托中心的室外PM2.5,PM10和NO2數據建模,得出室外PM2.5,PM10和NO2均可以增加兒童喘息和鼻炎的幾率。Nikasinovic L等[86]研究發現,在巴黎等城市地區,短期的PM2.5暴露與過敏性哮喘患兒的AR有關。有研究報道[87],學齡前兒童的AR與產前和產后暴露于交通相關的空氣污染(如PM2.5)顯著相關。此外,兒童AR和空氣污染之間的關聯存在性別差異,即男孩的流行率和影響效果更高[88-91],性別差異可能與不同的肺功能增長率和氣道大小的差異有關。
3.4肺結核? 肺結核是一種嚴重危害人民健康的慢性傳染病,環境空氣污染物暴露與結核病發展風險之間存在顯著關聯[92]。一項美國的研究表明,涂片陽性結核病例與PM2.5暴露之間存在相關性[93]。長期接觸PM2.5可能會增加結核病患者中結核病和其他疾病的死亡率[94]。上述證據表明環境空氣污染暴露與結核病發病率和死亡率增加之間存在聯系。此外,空氣污染可能會增加直接感染耐藥結核菌株的風險。在世界上大多數地區,耐藥結核病主要由傳播引起,污染的空氣條件可能有助于增加耐藥結核菌株的傳播。從2011年1月初開始,中國北方遭受多次長期嚴重的空氣污染,我國霧霾的特征是極高濃度的PM(例如PM2.5和PM10)污染物[95],PM污染物中的微生物不能直接利用空氣成分進行生長和繁殖,但可以附著在顆粒上進行傳播[96],PM影響空氣中的細菌含量,在重度霧霾天中細菌的豐度大大增加,高濃度的PM2.5為細菌和病原體的傳播提供了途徑[97,98]。因此,PM2.5可能是耐藥結核病菌株傳播的潛在途徑。Liu Y等[99]的研究發現暴露于PM2.5環境與單一、多重耐藥結核病的發生率之間存在正相關,PM2.5可能是耐藥結核病菌株轉運的潛在載體,PM2.5也對結核病患者產生直接的不良影響。Jafta N等[100]搜索了三個數據庫進行流行病學研究,調查兒童結核病與接觸煙草煙霧和生物質燃料煙霧的關系,結果揭示了接觸煙草煙霧會增加患兒童結核病或結核感染的風險。在2007年1月~2008年12月,美國學者以室外空氣污染暴露作為結核病的單因素模型,分析了在洛杉磯縣和南加州大學醫學中心醫院診斷出患有培養陽性結核病的196例病歷(包括成人和兒童),結果表明PM2.5的暴露與肺結核的發生具有一定的聯系[101]。
目前我國正處于工業化和城市化的過渡階段,面臨嚴重的空氣污染。在我國500個最大城市中,只有不到1%的城市可以達到世界衛生組織空氣質量指南中推薦的標準。我國有七個城市名列世界上污染最嚴重的十個城市[102]。PM2.5來源于人類活動,同時又嚴重威脅人類健康。兒童戶外度過的時間更多,活動更活躍,并且通風率高于成人,因此兒童更易受到PM2.5的侵襲。此外,兒童的肺部正在生長發育期,免疫系統仍然不夠成熟[103]。由于兒童的氣道較窄,空氣污染在成人中可能只產生輕微反應,但可能導致幼兒氣道嚴重受阻。懷孕期間或嬰兒期接觸的空氣污染對其成年后的呼吸系統也有著不利影響[104-106]。
4總結
通過對PM2.5的致病機制和對兒童呼吸系統疾病關系的了解,有利于對疾病的早期預防與控制。控制空氣污染是一項艱巨且長期的任務。為減少空氣污染對人體的損害,在高污染時節,應盡量留在室內,關閉門窗。如果出門,應戴上口罩,并盡量減少戶外活動時間或強度;敏感人群(兒童和老年人)更應該減少室外PM2.5暴露。氧化應激是PM2.5致病的主要機制之一,服用抗氧化劑的補充劑或營養食品(如富含ω-3脂肪酸的食品),有利于預防PM2.5損傷。同時,我國環保部門應建立預警預報機制,指導公眾及早準備,從而最大限度地減少PM2.5對健康的威脅。
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收稿日期:2019-3-15;修回日期:2019-3-25
編輯/杜帆