1引言
空間導(dǎo)航(SpatialNavigation)是個(gè)體在空間中更新自身位置與方向、學(xué)習(xí)新地點(diǎn)的布局以及在環(huán)境中規(guī)劃并沿某一路線到達(dá)目的地的能力(Yuetal.,2021)。它涉及感知覺、情景記憶、決策等多種認(rèn)知過程,可以幫助個(gè)體及時(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移住處,以補(bǔ)充食物、水源等生存所必需的資源,保障自身安全(Hillsetal.,2015),并滿足更高水平的行動(dòng)需要(Moseramp;Moser,2016),因此是人與動(dòng)物賴以生存的基本能力之一(Poulteretal.,2018)。性別是空間導(dǎo)航能力個(gè)體差異的重要來源。以往相當(dāng)多的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)男性的空間導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于女性(例如Merrill etal.,2016;Nazareth etal.,2018;Yu etal.,2021;Zhouetal.,2020),然而亦有一部分研究并未發(fā)現(xiàn)男女差異(例如Learmonthetal.,2008;Liaoamp;Dong,2017;Vieitesetal.,2020),甚至還有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)女性的空間導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于男性(例如Bocchietal.,2020)。在這些研究中,性別往往與研究設(shè)計(jì)等因素交互作用,共同影響空間導(dǎo)航能力。因此,有必要系統(tǒng)探究空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異,并尋找性別差異的潛在影響因素。
1.1空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異
空間能力一直被認(rèn)為是男女性在所有認(rèn)知能力中差異最大的(Halpern,2011)。雖然許多領(lǐng)域中的性別差異正逐漸消失或減少,但空間能力的性別差異始終存在(Hyde,2005;Martensamp;Antonenko,2012)。早年,Linn和Petersen(1985)報(bào)告男性與女性在空間任務(wù)上的差異效應(yīng)量為0.73,這一差異在過去幾十年間并沒有明顯改變(Maedaamp;Yoon,2013),近20年來的研究同樣表明男性有更好的空間能力(例如Laueretal.,2019;Leeetal.,2019;Yuanetal.,2019)。基于解決空間問題時(shí)涉及的不同參考框架,空間能力可分為小尺度和大尺度兩類(Yuanetal.,2019),前者主要基于環(huán)境中心的表征,典型任務(wù)如心理旋轉(zhuǎn);后者主要基于自我中心的表征,典型任務(wù)如空間導(dǎo)航。
男性的小尺度空間能力比如心理旋轉(zhuǎn)明顯優(yōu)于女性,這一結(jié)論已在相關(guān)研究中得到廣泛支持,然而大尺度的空間導(dǎo)航能力是否存在顯著的性別差異尚無定論。根據(jù)Silverman和Eals(1992)的狩獵者-采集者理論,男女性在大尺度空間能力上存在性別差異,并且屬于質(zhì)的差異而非量的不同。這一差異的關(guān)鍵影響因素是人類祖先的原始分工,其中男性主要扮演狩獵者的角色,負(fù)責(zé)長(zhǎng)途狩獵,女性則扮演采集者的角色,負(fù)責(zé)采集作物和資源,這兩種空間活動(dòng)的差異逐漸導(dǎo)致了男女性空間能力的差異。目前,該理論得到了不少研究的支持,這些研究基本發(fā)現(xiàn)男性比女性表現(xiàn)出更強(qiáng)的空間導(dǎo)航能力(例如Booneetal.,2018;Munionetal.,2019;Yuetal.,2021),但性別差異的程度不盡相同(例如Coutrotetal.,2018;Munionetal.,2019)。還有一些研究并未發(fā)現(xiàn)性別差異,如要求被試在包含多個(gè)地標(biāo)的虛擬環(huán)境中進(jìn)行導(dǎo)航(Andersenetal.,2012),或通過指向任務(wù)測(cè)量個(gè)體的空間導(dǎo)航能力(Arnoldetal.,2013;Hundamp;Padgitt,201O;Labateetal.,2014;Marchetteetal.,2011;Postma et al.,2012)。
1.2空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)變量
空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異沒有一致結(jié)論的現(xiàn)象背后,可能是某些因素調(diào)節(jié)了空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的大小。
(1)年齡。年齡與空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異具有緊密聯(lián)系。大多數(shù)對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異起點(diǎn)的研究聚焦在6至12歲的學(xué)齡期,這一時(shí)期的兒童表現(xiàn)出明顯的性別分化(Hemmeretal.,2013;León etal.,2014;Merrilletal.,2016)。根據(jù)Nazareth等(2018)的研究,12歲是一個(gè)過渡年齡,此時(shí)青少年開始在大尺度的空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)中表現(xiàn)出與成人相似的熟練程度,且男性表現(xiàn)出更好的空間導(dǎo)航能力。在步入青春期及長(zhǎng)大成人后,男女性的空間導(dǎo)航能力依然表現(xiàn)出明顯差異(Liuetal..2011;Sneideretal.,2015;Yuetal.,2021)。對(duì)學(xué)前期兒童空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的研究相對(duì)較少,且結(jié)論并不一致。如Sorrentino等(2019)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)4至6歲的男孩在完成搜索桶任務(wù)時(shí)搜索效率和完整度都優(yōu)于女生。然而,在涉及幾何線索和單一地標(biāo)的空間定向測(cè)試中,3至6歲的兒童未表現(xiàn)出性別差異(Learmonthetal.,20o8;Vieitesetal..2020)。因此,年齡可能是影響空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的重要調(diào)節(jié)變量。
(2)地區(qū)。地區(qū)是影響空間導(dǎo)航能力的重要因素,不同地區(qū)的居民受社會(huì)文化等因素影響而可能偏好不同的導(dǎo)航策略,發(fā)展不同程度的空間導(dǎo)航能力(Goeke etal.,2015;Schug,2016a)。盡管尚未有跨文化研究直接發(fā)現(xiàn)地區(qū)對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的影響,但依據(jù)霍夫斯泰德的文化維度理論(Hofstede,1984),社會(huì)文化中的男性化與女性化、集體主義與個(gè)體主義等文化特征會(huì)共同塑造人們對(duì)性別角色的認(rèn)知和行為期望,因而可能導(dǎo)致男女性空間導(dǎo)航能力的地域差異性。綜述以往研究,大多數(shù)來自美國(guó)和歐洲的研究都發(fā)現(xiàn)了男性在空間導(dǎo)航能力上的顯著優(yōu)勢(shì),而許多其他地區(qū)的研究卻未觀察到這一差異。例如,來自中國(guó)的研究在使用指向任務(wù)、物體定位、距離估計(jì)任務(wù)測(cè)量空間導(dǎo)航能力時(shí)均未發(fā)現(xiàn)顯著性別差異(趙夢(mèng)雅,肖承麗,2019;Liaoamp;Dong,2017),甚至在路徑重走任務(wù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)女性空間導(dǎo)航能力表現(xiàn)優(yōu)于男性(趙夢(mèng)雅,肖承麗,2019)。來自土耳其(Memikogluamp;Demirkan2020)和墨西哥的研究(Woolleyetal.,2010)同樣未發(fā)現(xiàn)空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異。因此本研究推測(cè),地區(qū)可能是影響空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的潛在調(diào)節(jié)變量。
(3)研究設(shè)計(jì)特征。空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)的研究設(shè)計(jì)和評(píng)估指標(biāo)也可能成為性別差異的異質(zhì)性來源。由于空間導(dǎo)航能力的測(cè)量任務(wù)和測(cè)量指標(biāo)類別豐富,不同研究者可能使用不同任務(wù)(如路線學(xué)習(xí)與重走任務(wù)、目標(biāo)指向任務(wù)、虛擬水迷宮任務(wù))和測(cè)量指標(biāo)(如正確率、反應(yīng)時(shí)、總距離、偏差程度)測(cè)量空間導(dǎo)航能力,這可能導(dǎo)致性別差異的大小甚至方向不同。例如,在二維矩陣導(dǎo)航任務(wù)中,女性的反應(yīng)時(shí)更快,而在真實(shí)駕駛場(chǎng)景識(shí)別任務(wù)中,男性的準(zhǔn)確率更高(Kimetal.,2007);一項(xiàng)元分析也揭示了指向和回憶任務(wù)比距離估計(jì)任務(wù)所測(cè)得的性別差異更大(Nazarethetal.,2019)。男女性在空間導(dǎo)航過程中的表征方式也有所不同,當(dāng)可以自由選擇表征方式時(shí),男性主要進(jìn)行環(huán)境中心表征,綜合使用環(huán)境線索和路標(biāo)線索,而女性主要進(jìn)行自我中心表征,偏好使用路標(biāo)線索進(jìn)行導(dǎo)航(Lavenexamp;Lavenex,201o;Rosenthal et al.,2012),這也可能導(dǎo)致性別差異。此外,空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)設(shè)計(jì)中的測(cè)試場(chǎng)景、輔助裝備、任務(wù)環(huán)境都可能成為影響空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的潛在因素。例如,同樣是使用指向任務(wù),虛擬環(huán)境中的指向任務(wù)大多具有穩(wěn)定的性別差異(Castellietal.,2008;Perssonetal.,2013),而真實(shí)環(huán)境中的指向任務(wù)結(jié)論不一(Labateet al.,2014;Marchetteetal.,2011;Meneghettietal.,2011);與使用電子設(shè)備不同,許多使用紙筆作為輔助裝備(Kastensetal.,2007;Newetal.,2007)或不提供輔助裝備(Bocchietal.,2020;Piccardietal.,2014)的研究并未發(fā)現(xiàn)性別差異;大多數(shù)室外研究都發(fā)現(xiàn)了顯著的性別差異,而Wang等人(2018)的室內(nèi)研究則并未發(fā)現(xiàn)男女性在自我定位、路線閱讀和路線跟隨方面的能力差異。
1.3 研究目標(biāo)
綜上所述,以往大量研究考察了空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異,但研究結(jié)論并不一致。因此,空間導(dǎo)航能力是否存在性別差異還有待澄清。如果存在差異,方向是怎樣的,是否受被試特征、研究設(shè)計(jì)等因素影響?本研究的第一個(gè)目標(biāo)是納入以往有關(guān)空間導(dǎo)航能力與性別關(guān)系的研究,通過三水平元分析探究男女性在空間導(dǎo)航能力方面是否存在顯著差異。基于以往多數(shù)研究,本研究推測(cè):空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異顯著,總體而言,男性的空間導(dǎo)航能力強(qiáng)于女性。
本研究的第二個(gè)目標(biāo)是分析調(diào)節(jié)因素對(duì)性別與空間導(dǎo)航能力關(guān)系的影響。基于以往研究結(jié)果,本研究推測(cè):個(gè)體變量(年齡和地區(qū))和任務(wù)變量(表征方式、時(shí)間限制、任務(wù)環(huán)境、測(cè)試場(chǎng)景、輔助裝備、任務(wù)類型、測(cè)量指標(biāo))均能夠調(diào)節(jié)空間導(dǎo)航能力與性別的關(guān)系。
2方法
2.1文獻(xiàn)檢索與篩選
文獻(xiàn)檢索:元分析中的所有文章通過搜索關(guān)鍵詞進(jìn)行檢索。搜索關(guān)鍵詞包括:spatialnavigationwayfinding, spatial orientation, cognitive map, spatialrepresentation,spatialcognition,spatial explorationsenseofdirection。本研究通過多個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)庫進(jìn)行檢索,以確保文獻(xiàn)的全面性和系統(tǒng)性,所用中文數(shù)據(jù)庫包括:中國(guó)知網(wǎng)(CNKI、萬方、維普,英文數(shù)據(jù)庫包括:Webof Science、PubMed、EBSCO、PsyArXiv,并結(jié)合手動(dòng)檢索以補(bǔ)充遺漏的相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)。檢索過程如下:(1)通過檢索關(guān)鍵詞,查找文獻(xiàn)并閱讀摘要;(2)若摘要表明文獻(xiàn)與本研究主題相關(guān),則閱讀文獻(xiàn)全文; (3)若摘要表明文獻(xiàn)與主題相關(guān),但無法獲取全文,則通過郵件向通訊作者尋求幫助。
篩選標(biāo)準(zhǔn):(1)研究必須包含至少一種空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù),排除自我報(bào)告或他人報(bào)告(調(diào)查)的結(jié)果;(2)必須同時(shí)收集男性和女性的數(shù)據(jù);(3)必須報(bào)告所測(cè)量空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)和性別的個(gè)數(shù)、平均數(shù)、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差;(4)研究納入被試的年齡在0至85歲之間;(5)文獻(xiàn)語言為中文或英語;(6不納入回歸分析、結(jié)構(gòu)方程模型或其他數(shù)據(jù)分析方法得出的數(shù)據(jù)。最終得到符合要求的文獻(xiàn)共173篇,其中中文文獻(xiàn)8篇,外文文獻(xiàn)165篇,篩選過程詳見圖1(n代表數(shù)量)。

2.2 文獻(xiàn)特征編碼
根據(jù)Lipsey和Wilson (2001)的方法對(duì)文獻(xiàn)數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行編碼:(1)被試年齡(嬰幼兒期0至4歲vs兒童期4至12歲vs.青少年期12至18歲Vs.成年早期18至40歲vs.成年中期40至65歲vs.成年晚期65歲以上 vs.跨年齡);(2)地區(qū)(亞洲 vs.歐洲vs.大洋洲 vs.北美洲 vs.南美洲 vs.跨國(guó)):(3)表征方式(自我中心Vs.環(huán)境中心);(4)時(shí)間限制(限時(shí)Vs.不限時(shí));(5)任務(wù)環(huán)境(室內(nèi)vs.室外Vs水迷宮 vs.室內(nèi)-室外);(6)測(cè)試場(chǎng)景(真實(shí)場(chǎng)景Vs.虛擬場(chǎng)景);(7)輔助裝備(電子設(shè)備Vs.書寫工具vs.無設(shè)備);(8)任務(wù)類型(閉環(huán)vs.地圖繪制vs.地圖使用vs.路標(biāo)再認(rèn)記憶vs.路線描述vs.路線學(xué)習(xí)與重走vs.目標(biāo)指向vs.虛擬水迷宮);(9)測(cè)量指標(biāo)(反應(yīng)時(shí)vs.總距離vs.正確率 vs.速度 vs.偏差程度 vs.效率)。
在編碼過程中,主要遵循以下原則: (1)每一個(gè)獨(dú)立樣本編碼為一個(gè)效應(yīng)值,如果同時(shí)報(bào)告了多個(gè)獨(dú)立樣本,則分別編碼;(2)若同一項(xiàng)研究對(duì)不同年齡段的被試分別報(bào)告其結(jié)果,則分別編碼;(③)若研究為縱向研究,則對(duì)每次結(jié)果分別編碼。編碼由兩位評(píng)分者獨(dú)立完成,編碼不一致時(shí),由兩位評(píng)分者重新閱讀原始文獻(xiàn),并在共同討論后統(tǒng)一結(jié)果。最終的編碼一致性 k 值分別為:(1)被試年齡: k = 1 . 0 0 ;(2)地區(qū): k = 1 . 0 0 ;(3)表征方式:k = 0 . 9 4 (4時(shí)間限制: k = 0 . 9 8 ;(5)任務(wù)環(huán)境: k = 0.98;(6測(cè)試場(chǎng)景: k = 0 . 9 5 ;(7輔助裝備: k = 0 . 9 8 (8)任務(wù)類型: k = 0 . 9 8 ;(9)測(cè)量指標(biāo): k = 0 . 9 8 。
2.3 元分析過程
2.3.1 三水平元分析的效應(yīng)量計(jì)算
本研究選取標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化均數(shù)差(standardizedmeandifference,SMD)Cohen's d 作為效應(yīng)量。由于空間導(dǎo)航能力的測(cè)量方法和指標(biāo)種類頗多,許多文獻(xiàn)包含多個(gè)效應(yīng)量,導(dǎo)致效應(yīng)量之間存在依賴性,與傳統(tǒng)元分析方法認(rèn)為效應(yīng)量相互獨(dú)立的假設(shè)不符,故采用三水平元分析方法,通過補(bǔ)充研究?jī)?nèi)方差來考慮效應(yīng)量之間的依賴性(Cheung,2014)總方差來源被分解為抽樣方差(水平1)、研究?jī)?nèi)方差(水平2)、研究間方差(水平3)(Hoxetal.,2017)。相較于傳統(tǒng)方法,三水平元分析更適合復(fù)雜數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)的處理,不僅解決了效應(yīng)量不獨(dú)立的問題,還在保留原始文獻(xiàn)信息完整性的同時(shí),有效提升了統(tǒng)計(jì)效率和穩(wěn)健性(Cheung,2019)。
2.3.2 數(shù)據(jù)處理與分析
采用Rx644.2.2-win版本的metafor包進(jìn)行三水平元分析(Viechtbauer,201O),參照Assink和Wibbelink(2016)以及Harrer等人(2021)的教程編寫R語法。首先參照Cheung(2014)的方法對(duì)抽樣方差(水平1)進(jìn)行估計(jì),然后對(duì)研究?jī)?nèi)方差(水平2)和研究間方差(水平3)進(jìn)行單側(cè)對(duì)數(shù)似然比檢驗(yàn)。若研究?jī)?nèi)方差和研究間方差顯著,則進(jìn)一步進(jìn)行調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn)以確定異質(zhì)性的來源(Gaoetal.,2017)。
2.3.3 研究特征
當(dāng)前元分析包括173項(xiàng)研究,共有372個(gè)獨(dú)立效應(yīng)量,26604名被試。在同一項(xiàng)研究中,效應(yīng)量數(shù)最少為1,最多為7,納人文獻(xiàn)的發(fā)表時(shí)間為2007年至2023年。
2.3.4 發(fā)表偏倚檢驗(yàn)
漏斗圖上代表效應(yīng)量的點(diǎn)基本分布在平均效應(yīng)量的兩側(cè)且位于頂端,但Begg 檢驗(yàn)
p = 0.086)和Egger檢驗(yàn) ( t = 4 . 3 9 p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 都表明可能存在一定程度的發(fā)表偏倚。為進(jìn)一步評(píng)估發(fā)表偏倚的影響,采用了Duval和Tweedie(2000)的Trim-and-Fil1方法,該方法估計(jì)可能存在93項(xiàng)缺失研究,補(bǔ)充這些研究后效應(yīng)量略微降低(從0.39降至0.23),但調(diào)整后效應(yīng)量仍顯著 ( p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 9 5 % CI[0.18,0.28]),即發(fā)表偏倚對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力與性別關(guān)系的總效應(yīng)影響是有限的,元分析結(jié)果依然具有穩(wěn)健性(見圖2)。
3結(jié)果
3.1空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的主效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn)
隨機(jī)效應(yīng)模型假設(shè),每個(gè)單獨(dú)研究的效應(yīng)量并非來源于完全相同的總體,而是圍繞一個(gè)總體效應(yīng)的分布,這意味著個(gè)體研究的效應(yīng)量可能因種種差異(如被試特征、研究方法、測(cè)量工具、研究情境等)而有所不同,而隨機(jī)效應(yīng)模型允許這些差異作為系統(tǒng)變異的一部分進(jìn)入模型。因此,本研究選擇了隨機(jī)效應(yīng)模型進(jìn)行主效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn)。
主效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明,男女性空間導(dǎo)航能力存在顯著差異 ( d = 0 . 3 9 p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 , 9 5 % CI[0.33,0.46]),這一結(jié)論符合研究假設(shè)。此外,采用單側(cè)對(duì)數(shù)似然比檢驗(yàn)法確定研究?jī)?nèi)方差和研究間方差的顯著性,結(jié)果表明,本研究的研究?jī)?nèi)方差 ( p lt; 0.001)和研究間方差 ( p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 ) 均存在顯著差異。在總方差來源中,抽樣方差為 1 8 . 6 6 % 。研究?jī)?nèi)方差為

注:圖中
軸為Cohen's d 效應(yīng)量,y軸為每個(gè)效應(yīng)量對(duì)應(yīng)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)誤。左圖為原始漏斗圖,表示未調(diào)整的效應(yīng)量分布;右圖為經(jīng)過Trim-and-Fill方法調(diào)整后的漏斗圖,其中空心點(diǎn)代表通過調(diào)整方法補(bǔ)充的潛在缺失研究。
1 1 . 9 4 % ,研究間方差為 6 9 . 4 0 % 。每個(gè)獨(dú)立樣本的效應(yīng)量及總體效應(yīng)量的森林圖見網(wǎng)絡(luò)版附錄。因此,進(jìn)行調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn),以確認(rèn)男女性空間導(dǎo)航能力的差異來源。
3.2空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn)
空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果如表1所示。結(jié)果表明:(1)年齡具有顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng), F ( 6 , 3 6 1 ) = 2 . 9 1 p = 0 . 0 0 9 ,在4至65歲的群體及跨年齡研究中,空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異顯著存在,男性優(yōu)勢(shì)明顯。在嬰幼兒期(0至4歲)和成年晚期(65歲以上),未發(fā)現(xiàn)顯著的性別差異;(2)表征方式具有邊緣顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng), F ( 1 , 3 7 0 ) = 3.44, p = 0 . 0 6 4 ,與自我中心的表征方式相比,男女性被要求使用環(huán)境中心的表征方式時(shí)的空間導(dǎo)航能力差異更大;(③時(shí)間限制具有邊緣顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng): F ( 1 , 3 7 0 ) = 3 . 4 2 p = 0 . 0 6 5 ,與不限時(shí)完成空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)相比,男女性在有時(shí)間限制的空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)中表現(xiàn)出更大的能力差異;(4)任務(wù)環(huán)境具有顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng),
p = 0.022,與室內(nèi)測(cè)試相比,男女性在完成水迷宮任務(wù)時(shí)表現(xiàn)出更大的空間導(dǎo)航能力差異。而在室內(nèi)一室外雙重測(cè)試條件下,未發(fā)現(xiàn)性別差異;(5)測(cè)試場(chǎng)景具有顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng), F ( 1 , 3 7 0 ) = 9 . 7 4 , p = 0.002,與真實(shí)場(chǎng)景相比,男女性在視頻場(chǎng)景中的空間導(dǎo)航能力差異更大;(6輔助裝備具有顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng), F ( 2 , 3 6 9 ) = 7 . 4 1 , p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 ,男女性在使用電子設(shè)備、紙筆工具時(shí)表現(xiàn)出性別差異,而不使用輔助設(shè)備時(shí)則無性別差異。與假設(shè)不一致的是,在以下變量中并沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)顯著的調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng):(1)地區(qū): F ( 6 , 3 6 5 ) = 0 . 5 3 p = 0 . 7 8 6 (2)任務(wù)類型: F ( 7 , 3 6 4 ) = 1 . 1 7 , p = 0 . 3 2 2 ;(3)測(cè)量指標(biāo):F ( 5 , 3 6 6 ) = 1 . 9 2 , p = 0 . 0 9 1 。


3.3調(diào)節(jié)變量的多重回歸分析
為排除調(diào)節(jié)變量之間的共線性,根據(jù)Assink和Wibbelink(2016)的方法,對(duì)顯著的調(diào)節(jié)變量進(jìn)行多重回歸分析。以年齡(嬰幼兒期,0至4歲)、任務(wù)環(huán)境(室內(nèi))、表征方式(環(huán)境中心)、時(shí)間限制(不限時(shí))、測(cè)試場(chǎng)景(真實(shí)場(chǎng)景)、輔助裝備(電子設(shè)備)為參照變量,結(jié)果顯示至少有一個(gè)調(diào)節(jié)變量的回歸系數(shù)顯著偏離零(見表2),表明這些變量在控制其他調(diào)節(jié)變量的共線性影響后,對(duì)結(jié)果變量產(chǎn)生了獨(dú)立的顯著影響,進(jìn)一步驗(yàn)證了其在空間導(dǎo)航能力中的獨(dú)立調(diào)節(jié)作用。
4討論
本研究采用三水平元分析的方法,整合了2007年至2023年間的173篇有關(guān)空間導(dǎo)航能力的原始文獻(xiàn),以探究空間導(dǎo)航能力是否存在性別差異,并進(jìn)一步考察哪些變量調(diào)節(jié)了空間導(dǎo)航能力與性別的關(guān)系。總體而言,空間導(dǎo)航能力存在性別差異,男性的空間導(dǎo)航能力更強(qiáng)。然而在嬰幼兒期(0至4歲)和成年晚期(65歲以上)的人群中,未發(fā)現(xiàn)顯著的性別差異;在室內(nèi)-室外雙重測(cè)試條件和個(gè)體不使用任何輔助設(shè)備參與測(cè)試的條件下,也未觀察到性別差異。
4.1空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異
本研究結(jié)果首先證實(shí)了空間導(dǎo)航能力存在性別差異,男性的空間導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于女性,這一現(xiàn)象在4至65歲個(gè)體中普遍存在,且在大多數(shù)測(cè)試條件下具有顯著體現(xiàn)。該結(jié)論與Nazareth等人(2019)的結(jié)論一致,可能與心理、生物、社會(huì)文化三方面的影響有關(guān)。
以往研究發(fā)現(xiàn)了多個(gè)心理因素對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的潛在影響。空間焦慮是空間導(dǎo)航過程中常見的消極情緒,會(huì)負(fù)向預(yù)測(cè)個(gè)體的空間導(dǎo)航能力(vanderHametal.,202O),且在女性中更為常見(Huangamp;Voyer,2017)。女性在時(shí)間限制條件下,可能產(chǎn)生更高的空間焦慮,這種負(fù)性情緒分散了認(rèn)知資源,降低了對(duì)環(huán)境信息的加工能力(Norietal.,2009;Voyer,2011),因此空間導(dǎo)航表現(xiàn)受阻,此外,Zeng等人的研究(2012)發(fā)現(xiàn),男女性的移動(dòng)策略存在差異,男性更看重速度而非移動(dòng)的準(zhǔn)確性,而女性更為謹(jǐn)慎,會(huì)通過犧牲速度來保證準(zhǔn)確性,這種決策也會(huì)影響男女性的空間導(dǎo)航表現(xiàn)。
進(jìn)化和生物學(xué)的視角也可以解釋空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異。早期研究聚焦于驗(yàn)證狩獵者-采集者理論,發(fā)現(xiàn)當(dāng)身處于森林時(shí),男性能夠以更短的路線回到出發(fā)點(diǎn)(Moffatetal.,1998),這一過程涉及路線學(xué)習(xí)、路徑整合、方位判斷等能力,均有助于男性用長(zhǎng)矛射中獵物,并盡快將捕獲的獵物帶回部落;而女性則比男性具有更大的空間視野(Burg,1968)、更快的空間感知速度(Kimura,1999)和更強(qiáng)的物品定位記憶(Silvermanetal.,2007),這可能源于采集任務(wù)中的進(jìn)化適應(yīng)。上述結(jié)論說明了進(jìn)化過程中的兩性勞動(dòng)分工可能對(duì)男女性的空間導(dǎo)航能力具有不同影響。神經(jīng)生物學(xué)的研究則基于男女性大腦結(jié)構(gòu)和功能差異進(jìn)行了解釋。海馬-內(nèi)嗅皮層導(dǎo)航系統(tǒng)是核心的導(dǎo)航環(huán)路(王琳,王亮,2017),其神經(jīng)元能夠通過相位進(jìn)動(dòng)(phaseprecession)表征空間位置,并參與非空間任務(wù)的信息編碼,其中海馬的位置細(xì)胞會(huì)在個(gè)體處于特定位置時(shí)激活,以形成環(huán)境的認(rèn)知地圖(Marchetteetal.,2011),內(nèi)嗅皮層的網(wǎng)格細(xì)胞和頭方向細(xì)胞分別提供空間距離度量和方向信息(Hafting et al.,2005;Long et al.,2022,2024)。而在Long和Zhang (2021)在軀體感覺皮層中發(fā)現(xiàn)的新導(dǎo)航系統(tǒng)中,神經(jīng)元的功能與經(jīng)典系統(tǒng)類似。這些系統(tǒng)的結(jié)構(gòu)和功能差異為解釋男女性空間導(dǎo)航的認(rèn)知神經(jīng)差異提供了基礎(chǔ),例如男女性在完成空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)時(shí)均使用大面積腦區(qū),但男性更多依賴海馬體(Gron et al.,2000;Kong et al.,2017);男性在環(huán)境中心導(dǎo)航中激活更多的頂葉和前額葉.而女性在自我中心導(dǎo)航中后部腦區(qū)激活更強(qiáng)(Noachtaretal.,2022)。睪酮素也可能影響空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異,有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)女性內(nèi)源性睪酮水平與空間導(dǎo)航能力顯著正相關(guān),而這一相關(guān)性在男性中并不顯著(Burkitt etal.,2007);如果向女性注射睪酮素,則女性的內(nèi)側(cè)顳葉活性得到增強(qiáng),空間導(dǎo)航表現(xiàn)有所提升(Pintzkaetal.,2016)。目前對(duì)人類空間導(dǎo)航能力的神經(jīng)生物學(xué)研究仍處于探索階段,未來研究有必要結(jié)合神經(jīng)成像技術(shù),深入探討不同空間導(dǎo)航系統(tǒng)在男女性中的功能差異,從而加深對(duì)大腦如何通過多種并行系統(tǒng)應(yīng)對(duì)復(fù)雜導(dǎo)航任務(wù)的理解,為考察性別差異提供新的視角。

社會(huì)文化對(duì)男女性空間導(dǎo)航能力的影響也不可忽視。根據(jù)社會(huì)認(rèn)知理論(Busseyamp;Bandura,1999),個(gè)體性別行為的發(fā)展不僅受進(jìn)化生物學(xué)影響,還受到環(huán)境創(chuàng)新的塑造,會(huì)通過觀察、經(jīng)驗(yàn)和信息獲取,形成對(duì)性別行為后果的認(rèn)知,并在自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)的作用下進(jìn)一步影響性別行為。例如,“男主外,女主內(nèi)\"的刻板印象是人類社會(huì)中根深蒂固的觀念之一,強(qiáng)化了社會(huì)文化對(duì)性別角色的期待(Ellemers,2018)。這一觀念與\"男性空間導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于女性\"的刻板印象相互關(guān)聯(lián),“男主外\"賦予男性更強(qiáng)的外部探索與導(dǎo)航角色,從而鞏固了對(duì)男性在空間任務(wù)中表現(xiàn)更優(yōu)的期待,“女主內(nèi)”則限制了女性對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力的認(rèn)知與實(shí)踐。這種性別刻板印象通過個(gè)體與社會(huì)文化的互動(dòng)被內(nèi)化,影響了男女性的自我調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng)和空間導(dǎo)航能力的發(fā)展。此外,一些傳統(tǒng)的空間能力測(cè)試設(shè)計(jì)可能在無意間放大性別差異,強(qiáng)化了被試對(duì)性別空間刻板印象的認(rèn)同,形成教育和社會(huì)互動(dòng)中不斷被重復(fù)和強(qiáng)化的惡性循環(huán)(Bartlettamp;Camba,2023)。長(zhǎng)此以往,即使男女性最初在空間導(dǎo)航能力上不存在差異,也會(huì)在社會(huì)文化潛移默化的影響下產(chǎn)生差異。有趣的是,Hults等人(2024)綜述了多項(xiàng)研究,指出在那些不存在“男主外,女主內(nèi)”分工模式的狩獵采集文化中,當(dāng)男性和女性從事類似的空間任務(wù)時(shí),性別差異幾乎消失(Janget al.,2019;Trumbleetal.,2016),印證了上述觀點(diǎn),即空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異并非普遍存在,而是高度依賴于社會(huì)文化背景。
4.2空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)因素
本研究通過三水平元分析對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異進(jìn)行了調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)檢驗(yàn),以檢驗(yàn)被試個(gè)體因素和研究設(shè)計(jì)因素是否會(huì)影響空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異。結(jié)果表明,年齡、表征方式、時(shí)間限制、任務(wù)環(huán)境、測(cè)試場(chǎng)景和輔助裝備均發(fā)揮調(diào)節(jié)作用,而地區(qū)、任務(wù)類型、測(cè)量指標(biāo)則不具有調(diào)節(jié)作用。
年齡是影響空間導(dǎo)航性別差異的重要因素。元分析結(jié)果表明嬰幼兒期(0至4歲)和成年晚期(65歲以上)個(gè)體的空間導(dǎo)航能力不存在性別差異,而4至65歲的個(gè)體存在空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異。4歲前兒童的空間導(dǎo)航能力尚處于初步發(fā)展階段,受性別的社會(huì)化影響有限,而在進(jìn)入幼兒期后,社會(huì)文化開始對(duì)性別角色的塑造產(chǎn)生更大影響。書籍、媒體和日常生活中存在諸多性別刻板印象,如Berry和Wilkins(2017)發(fā)現(xiàn)在1930至2017年出版的103本兒童書籍中,男性角色占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位,且常被描繪為具有領(lǐng)導(dǎo)力、勇敢和冒險(xiǎn)精神的,這些特質(zhì)往往與空間導(dǎo)航所需的尋路、定向等能力緊密相連。相反,很多女性角色被刻畫為情緒化或表現(xiàn)出不安全感,可能會(huì)削弱女孩們對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航活動(dòng)的興趣、主動(dòng)探索性和對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力的自我認(rèn)知,進(jìn)而導(dǎo)致男女性空間導(dǎo)航能力的發(fā)展開始分化。而當(dāng)個(gè)體步入成年晚期時(shí),男女性的空間導(dǎo)航能力均會(huì)大幅下降(Coutrotetal.,2022),表現(xiàn)出低速度和低準(zhǔn)確性(Merhavamp;Wolbers,2019;Tailladeetal.,2016;Zhongamp;Moffat,2016),這種能力的全面下降可能縮小甚至消除了性別差異,因此聚焦成年晚期的研究往往未能觀測(cè)到空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異。
表征方式能夠調(diào)節(jié)空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異相較于環(huán)境中心的表征方式,個(gè)體在使用自我中心的表征方式時(shí)性別差異縮小。這一結(jié)論與假設(shè)及以往研究結(jié)論一致,即男性的環(huán)境中心表征能力強(qiáng)于女性(Hundamp;Minarik,20o6;Munionetal.,2019),在使用環(huán)境中心的表征方式進(jìn)行空間導(dǎo)航時(shí)更具優(yōu)勢(shì)。具體而言,男性在學(xué)習(xí)空間環(huán)境時(shí)傾向于關(guān)注整體、分析地理分布、記憶物體間關(guān)系(Lithfousetal.,2013),女性則更依賴局部環(huán)境信息,注重主客體間的關(guān)系(Colucciaetal.,2007)。而當(dāng)要求被試使用自我中心的表征方式進(jìn)行空間導(dǎo)航時(shí),男性環(huán)境中心表征的優(yōu)勢(shì)被抑制,因而和女性的導(dǎo)航表現(xiàn)差距縮小。
時(shí)間限制是空間導(dǎo)航能力性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)因素,在不限制時(shí)間的條件下,男女性的性別差異縮小,這可能與女性在空間導(dǎo)航過程普遍較高的焦慮感有關(guān)(Lyonsetal.,2018),時(shí)間壓力會(huì)加劇女性的焦慮,從而影響方向感和尋路表現(xiàn)(Kremmyda et al.,2016; Mendez-Lopez et al.,2020),而沒有時(shí)間限制則有助于緩解壓力,促進(jìn)她們的空間導(dǎo)航表現(xiàn)。
任務(wù)環(huán)境、測(cè)試場(chǎng)景、輔助裝備均能夠調(diào)節(jié)性別與空間導(dǎo)航能力的關(guān)系。研究結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn),性別差異在室外環(huán)境中最大,在室內(nèi)-室外雙重測(cè)試條件下不顯著;真實(shí)場(chǎng)景的性別差異小于視頻場(chǎng)景;使用電子設(shè)備時(shí)性別差異最大,不使用任何輔助裝備時(shí)則無顯著性別差異。綜上可知,男女性在完成具有更高生態(tài)學(xué)效度的空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)時(shí)表現(xiàn)更為接近,與以往觀點(diǎn)一致(Minamp;Ha,2021),這可能是由于男性的電子游戲經(jīng)驗(yàn)更豐富對(duì)電子設(shè)備的使用更熟悉。此外,男性在具有有限線索的環(huán)境中更具有優(yōu)勢(shì),而在含有豐富近端線索的導(dǎo)航任務(wù)中性別差異不再顯著(Barkleyamp;Gabriel,2007)。將空間導(dǎo)航測(cè)試設(shè)置在室外環(huán)境、真實(shí)場(chǎng)景能夠給個(gè)體提供豐富的感官信息和環(huán)境線索,使個(gè)體能夠更全面地感知和理解空間關(guān)系,這削弱了男性的空間導(dǎo)航優(yōu)勢(shì),使女性更自然地運(yùn)用空間導(dǎo)航能力,因此性別差異減小;而當(dāng)在室內(nèi)環(huán)境、視頻場(chǎng)景進(jìn)行導(dǎo)航能力測(cè)試時(shí),男性的優(yōu)勢(shì)則使他們具有更好的表現(xiàn)。上述結(jié)論提示研究者在任務(wù)設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)重視環(huán)境真實(shí)性可能帶來的影響。近年來日益普及的虛擬現(xiàn)實(shí)技術(shù)(VR)為評(píng)估人類空間導(dǎo)航提供了新工具。VR環(huán)境可以操縱實(shí)驗(yàn)條件,控制無關(guān)變量,被試的學(xué)習(xí)機(jī)制也與真實(shí)環(huán)境中無異(Weisbergetal.,2014),已被證實(shí)所測(cè)空間導(dǎo)航可以預(yù)測(cè)真實(shí)環(huán)境的空間導(dǎo)航(Santosetal.,2008),且兩者具有良好的可復(fù)制性(Lloydetal.,2009)。未來研究可逐漸將桌面空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)轉(zhuǎn)向VR室外導(dǎo)航,模擬真實(shí)生活中的導(dǎo)航體驗(yàn)的真實(shí)感受,提升研究的生態(tài)學(xué)效度。
地區(qū)未影響男女性的空間導(dǎo)航能力,來自各個(gè)大洲的被試均在空間導(dǎo)航任務(wù)中表現(xiàn)出了顯著的男性優(yōu)勢(shì)。一方面,可能是由于以往研究主要聚焦于亞洲、歐洲、北美洲,對(duì)南美洲、大洋洲、非洲缺乏關(guān)注,尤其是對(duì)貧困地區(qū)的研究不足,導(dǎo)致被試來源分布不均。另一方面,經(jīng)濟(jì)條件和生活環(huán)境作為更微觀的因素,可能通過提供資源和挑戰(zhàn)來調(diào)節(jié)男女性的空間導(dǎo)航能力差異。研究表明,空間導(dǎo)航能力與國(guó)家GDP和教育水平正相關(guān)(Coutrotetal.,2018)。在資源豐富的地區(qū),男女均有更多接觸科技與教育的機(jī)會(huì),而在貧困地區(qū),女性因性別角色限制在資源獲取和能力發(fā)展上受阻(Amoo et al.,2019;McKinney et al.,2017)。此外,空間環(huán)境能夠驅(qū)動(dòng)空間能力的發(fā)展(Prudenetal.,2011,2020),因此可能影響空間導(dǎo)航能力。Coutrot等(2022)的全球研究印證了這一點(diǎn),發(fā)現(xiàn)成長(zhǎng)于復(fù)雜環(huán)境(如鄉(xiāng)村)的人群導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于城市居民,尤其在現(xiàn)代化國(guó)家更為明顯,可能源于鄉(xiāng)村的非規(guī)則地形和復(fù)雜布局提供了更多空間挑戰(zhàn),而城市的網(wǎng)格化結(jié)構(gòu)減少了尋路機(jī)會(huì)。男女性在成長(zhǎng)過程中的活動(dòng)空間也往往不同,男性更有可能被家長(zhǎng)允許外出游戲,且更傾向于開展具有探索性的活動(dòng),因此在童年期具有更高的外出頻次、更遠(yuǎn)的出行距離和探索廣度,積累了更多空間線索(Schug,2016a,2016b),而女性接觸復(fù)雜空間環(huán)境的機(jī)會(huì)較少。Utta1等人(2013)的研究證實(shí)了當(dāng)女性獲得與男性相同的探索機(jī)會(huì)時(shí),其空間定向能力可與男性持平。這些證據(jù)均表明,生活環(huán)境和經(jīng)濟(jì)條件可能通過與性別相互作用,影響空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異。未來研究應(yīng)進(jìn)一步聚焦這些因素,探索如何通過干預(yù)措施縮小差異。
空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異在不同任務(wù)類型和測(cè)量指標(biāo)下均保持穩(wěn)定,表明其評(píng)估的可靠性。然而,實(shí)際生活中的空間環(huán)境線索紛繁復(fù)雜,遠(yuǎn)非實(shí)驗(yàn)室環(huán)境中簡(jiǎn)化的任務(wù)所能完全涵蓋,提示未來需探索更貼近現(xiàn)實(shí)的評(píng)估方法。近年來,VR和移動(dòng)設(shè)備等新興技術(shù)為導(dǎo)航能力評(píng)估帶來了革新,VR可提供高沉浸感和逼真度的測(cè)試環(huán)境,移動(dòng)設(shè)備則通過實(shí)時(shí)捕捉地理信息與空間布局,實(shí)現(xiàn)個(gè)性化和動(dòng)態(tài)評(píng)估(Coutrot et al.,2022;Dong et al.,2022)。這些技術(shù)有效縮小了實(shí)驗(yàn)室與現(xiàn)實(shí)生活的差距,有助于在更真實(shí)的條件下測(cè)量空間導(dǎo)航能力。
4.3研究意義、局限性與未來展望
本研究通過三水平元分析探討了空間導(dǎo)航能力的性別差異及調(diào)節(jié)因素,澄清了目前關(guān)于空間導(dǎo)航能力是否存在性別差異的爭(zhēng)議,確認(rèn)了空間導(dǎo)航能力的男性優(yōu)勢(shì)現(xiàn)象,并識(shí)別了影響性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)變量。這為未來研究提供了重要啟示,即應(yīng)納入更多具有代表性的人群,并選取更加貼近真實(shí)環(huán)境的測(cè)量方式,以深人揭示空間導(dǎo)航能力與性別的關(guān)系。在實(shí)踐層面,空間導(dǎo)航能力是個(gè)體應(yīng)對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)生活復(fù)雜任務(wù)和職業(yè)發(fā)展的重要技能,對(duì)促進(jìn)男女在STEM領(lǐng)域的平等參與具有積極意義。教育工作者應(yīng)注重培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的空間導(dǎo)航能力,尤其是通過針對(duì)性教學(xué)和實(shí)踐活動(dòng),提升女性應(yīng)對(duì)導(dǎo)航任務(wù)的信心和能力。這不僅有助于縮小性別差異,還能增強(qiáng)學(xué)生在真實(shí)環(huán)境中解決空間問題的能力,推動(dòng)教育公平與社會(huì)發(fā)展。
本研究也存在一定的不足。首先,本研究所納入的文獻(xiàn)雖然包含中文和英文發(fā)表的文章,但是由數(shù)據(jù)來源所帶來的語言偏差和文化代表性問題仍然存在,影響了地區(qū)變量調(diào)節(jié)作用的分析及社會(huì)文化對(duì)空間導(dǎo)航能力影響的理解。未來研究應(yīng)納入更多語言的文獻(xiàn),以涵蓋更廣泛的文化群體提升研究的多樣性與普適性。其次,本研究使用了多種檢驗(yàn)評(píng)估發(fā)表偏倚,并使用Trim-and-Fill法減少偏倚的影響,盡管調(diào)整后效應(yīng)量的顯著表明研究結(jié)論具有穩(wěn)健性,但發(fā)表偏倚仍可能影響效應(yīng)量估計(jì)。未來研究有必要納入未發(fā)表或難以獲得的數(shù)據(jù),以進(jìn)一步降低偏倚的影響。最后,由于空間導(dǎo)航性別差異領(lǐng)域的研究關(guān)注的群體具有較大異質(zhì)性,測(cè)量工具多樣,在亞組分析時(shí)個(gè)別亞組之間效應(yīng)值個(gè)數(shù)差異較大,可能影響結(jié)果的準(zhǔn)確性和普遍性。未來可通過納入更多文獻(xiàn),尤其是關(guān)注個(gè)體生命早期的性別研究,驗(yàn)證亞組分析結(jié)果的穩(wěn)健性,同時(shí)細(xì)化研究對(duì)象分類,提升亞組內(nèi)的同質(zhì)性,以提高結(jié)果的準(zhǔn)確性和可靠性。
5結(jié)論
本研究采用三水平元分析的方法,整合了2007年至2023年間的173篇有關(guān)空間導(dǎo)航能力的原始文獻(xiàn),結(jié)果證實(shí)了男性的空間導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于女性。進(jìn)一步發(fā)現(xiàn):年齡對(duì)性別差異的調(diào)節(jié)作用顯著,4至65歲男性的空間導(dǎo)航能力優(yōu)于女性,嬰幼兒期和成年晚期的男女性空間導(dǎo)航能力無顯著差異;研究設(shè)計(jì)中的表征方式、時(shí)間限制、任務(wù)環(huán)境、測(cè)試場(chǎng)景、輔助裝備也能發(fā)揮調(diào)節(jié)作用,在自我中心的表征方式、不限時(shí)的任務(wù)條件、室內(nèi)、真實(shí)場(chǎng)景、使用紙筆工具或不使用輔助裝備時(shí)性別差異較小;地區(qū)、任務(wù)類型、測(cè)量指標(biāo)等因素不發(fā)揮調(diào)節(jié)作用。
參考文獻(xiàn)
*為元分析中使用的文獻(xiàn)
*方浩,宋章通,楊流,馬義濤,秦前清.(2019).VR移動(dòng) 城市導(dǎo)航地圖設(shè)計(jì)中的空間認(rèn)知要素.武漢大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào): 信息科學(xué)版,44(8),1124-1130.
*房慧聰.(2012).空間焦慮與導(dǎo)航方式對(duì)尋路行為的影響 心理與行為研究,10(6),413-418.
*房慧聰,周琳.(2012).大學(xué)生尋路策略與空間焦慮的關(guān) 系.人類工效學(xué),18(4),57-60.
*房慧聰,周琳.(2012).性別、尋路策略與導(dǎo)航方式對(duì)尋路 行為的影響.心理學(xué)報(bào),44(8),1058-1065
*高雪原,董衛(wèi)華,童依依,崔迪揚(yáng).(2016).場(chǎng)認(rèn)知方式、 性別和慣用空間語對(duì)地理空間定向能力影響的實(shí)驗(yàn)研 究.地球信息科學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),18(11),1513-1521.
*李義雙,馮成志,史新廣.(2021).虛擬三維場(chǎng)景下視聽 覺地標(biāo)導(dǎo)航作用差異.人類工效學(xué),27(2),27-32.
*王芳芳,梁雪,劉任遠(yuǎn),武文博,吳思楚,陸加明,..張 冰.(2017).年輕人海馬亞區(qū)體積與空間導(dǎo)航的相關(guān)性 研究.中國(guó)CT和MRI雜志,15(5),1-4.
王琳,王亮.(2017).認(rèn)知地圖的神經(jīng)環(huán)路基礎(chǔ).生物化學(xué) 與生物物理進(jìn)展,44(3),187-197.
*應(yīng)申,莊園,黃麗娜,陳乃鑌,張?chǎng)┎?(2020).性別和認(rèn) 知差異對(duì)三維空間尋路結(jié)果的影響.武漢大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào):信 息科學(xué)版,45(3),317-324.
*趙夢(mèng)雅,肖承麗.(2019).大尺度真實(shí)環(huán)境中多種空間任 務(wù)的性別差異比較——以商場(chǎng)和辦公樓為例.心理研究 12(3),262-271.
*Acevedo,S.F.,Piper,B.J.,Craytor,M.J.,Benice,T.S.,amp; Raber,J. (201o). Apolipoprotein E4 and sex affect neurobehavioral performance in primary school children. PediatricResearch,67(3),293-299.
*Adhanom,I.B.,Al-Zayer,M.,Macneilage,P.,amp;Folmer,E. (2021).Field-of-view restriction to reduce VR sickness does not impede spatial learning in women. ACM Transactions on AppliedPerception,18(2),17.
*Allison,C.,Redhead,E.S.,amp;Chan,W.(2017).Interaction of task difficulty and gender stereotype threat with a spatial orientation task in a virtual nested environment. Learningand Motivation,57,22-35.
Amoo,E.O.,Adekola,P.O.,Oladosun,M.,amp;Ajayi,M.P. (2019).Science,technology and poverty eradication: Any connection with demography.International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology,10(2),231-243.
Andersen,N.E.,Dahmani,L.,Konishi,K.,amp;Bohbot,V.D. (2012).Eye tracking,strategies,and sex differences in virtual navigation.Neurobiology ofLearningand Memory, 97(1), 81-89.
Arnold,A.E.G.F.,Burles,F(xiàn).,Krivoruchko,T.,Liu,I.,Rey, C.D.,Levy,R.M.,amp;Iaria,G.(2013).Cognitive mapping in humans and its relationship to other orientation skills. Experimental Brain Research,224(3),359-372.
Assink,M.,amp; Wibbelink,C.J.(2016).Fitting three-level meta-analytic modelsinR:A step-by-step tutorial.The Quantitative Methods for Psychology,12(3),154-174.
*Astur,R.S.,Purton,A.J.,Zaniewski,M.J.,Cimadevilla,J.,amp; Markus,E.J.(20l6).Human sex differences in solving a virtual navigationproblem.Behavioural Brain Research, 308,236-243.
Barkley,C.L.,amp; Gabriel,K.I.(2oo7).Sex differencesin cue perception in a visual scene: Investigation of cue type. Behavioral Neuroscience,121(2),291-300.
Bartlett,K.A.,amp;Camba,J.D.(2023).Genderdifferencesin spatial ability:A critical review.Educational Psychology Review,35(1),Article e8.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648- 023-09728-2
*Bernal,A.,Mateo-Martinez,R.,amp; Paolieri,D.(2020). Influence of sex,menstrual cycle,and hormonal contraceptives on egocentric navigation with or without landmarks.Psychoneuroendocrinology,120,Article e104768.htps://doiorg/ 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104768
Berry,T.,amp;Wilkins,J.(2017).The gendered portrayal of inanimatecharactersinchildren'sbooks.Journal ofChildren’s Literature,43(2), 4-15.
*Berteau-Pavy,F(xiàn).,Park,B.,amp;Raber,J. (2007).Effects of sex and APOE ε4 on object recognition and spatial navigation in the elderly.Neuroscience,147(1),6-17.
*Bocchi, A.,Palermo,L.,Boccia,M.,Palmiero,M.,D'Amico, S.,amp; Piccardi,L. (2020). Object recognition and location: Which component of object location memory for landmarks is affectedby gender? Evidence from four to ten year-old children.AppliedNeuropsvchology:Child,9(1).31-40.
*Bocchi,A.,Palmiero,M.,Redondo,J.M.C.,Tascón,L., Nori,R.,amp; Piccardi,L.(2021).The role of gender and familiarity ina modified version of the Almeria Boxes Room Spatial Task.Brain Sciences,Il(6),Article e681. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainscil1060681
*Boccia,M.,Vecchione,F(xiàn).,Piccardi,L.,amp;Guariglia,C. (2017).Effect of cognitive style on learning and retrieval of navigational environments.Frontiers in Pharmacology, 8,Article e496.htts://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00496
*Boone,A.P.,Gong,X.,amp; Hegarty,M.(2018).Sex differences in navigation strategy and eficiency. Memory and Cognition,46(6), 909-922.
*Boone,A.P.,Maghen,B.,amp; Hegarty,M. (2019).Instructions matter:Individual differences in navigation strategy and ability.Memory and Cognition,47(7),1401-1414.
*Brucato,M.,Nazareth,A.,amp; Newcombe,N.S.(2022). Longitudinal development of cognitive mapping from childhood to adolescence.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,219,Article e105412.
*Brunswick,N.,Martin,G.N.,amp; Marzano,L.(2010). Visuospatial superiority in developmental dyslexia:Myth orreality? Learning and Individual Differences,20(5), 421-426.
*Buckley,M. G.,amp; Bast, T. (2018).A new human delayedmatching-to-place test in a virtual environment reversetranslated from the rodent watermaze paradigm: Characterization of performance measures and sex diferences. Hippocampus, 28(11), 796-812.
Burg,A.(l968).Lateral visual field as related to age and sex Journal ofAppliedPsychology,52,10-15.
*Burkitt,J.,Widman,D.,amp; Saucier,D.M.(2oo7).Evidence for the influence of testosterone in the performance of spatial navigation in a virtual water maze in women but notin men.Hormones and Behavior,51(5),649-654.
*Burte,H.,Turner,B.O.,Miler,M.B.,amp; Hegarty,M.(2018). The neural basis of individual differences in directional sense.Frontiersin HumanNeuroscience,12,Articlee410 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00410
Bussey, K.,amp; Bandura,A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4),676-713.
*Campos,A.,amp; Campos-Juanatey,D. (2020).Do gender, discipline,and mental rotation influence orientation on \"YouAre-Here\"maps.SAGE Open,10(1),Article e215824401989880. https://doi.0rg/10.1177/215824401989880
*Canovas,R.,Garcia,R.F.,amp; Cimadevila,J.M. (2011). Effect of reference framesand number of cuesavailable on the spatial orientation of males and females in a virtual memory task.Behavioural Brain Research,216(1),116-121.
*Cashdan,E.,Marlowe,F(xiàn).W.,Crittenden,A.,Porter,C.,amp; Wood,B.M. (2012).Sex differences in spatial cognition among Hadza foragers. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(4),274-284.
*Castelli,L.,Corazzini,L.L.,amp; Geminiani,G.C.(2008). Spatial navigation in large-scale virtual environments: Gender diferences in survey tasks. Computers in Human Behavior,24(4),1643-1667.
*Cazzato,V.,Basso,D.,Cutini,S.,amp;Bisiacchi,P.(2010). Gender differences in visuospatial planning:An eye movements study.Behavioural Brain Research,206(2), 177-183.
*Ceccanti,M.,Coriale,G.,Hamilton,D.A.,Carito,V. Coccurello,R., Scalese,B.,...Fiore,M. (2018).Virtual Morris task responses in individuals in an abstinence phase from alcohol.Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology,96(2),128-136.
*Chai,X.J.,amp; Jacobs,L.F.(2009).Sex differences in directional cue use in a virtual landscape. Behavioral Neuroscience,123(2),276-283.
*Chai,X.J.,amp;Jacobs,L.F.(2010).Effects of cue types on sex differences in human spatial memory. Behavioural Brain Research,208(2),336-342.
*Chamizo,V.D.,Artigas,A.A.,Sansa,J.,amp;Banterla,F(xiàn).(011). Gender differences in landmark learning for virtual navigation:The role of distance to a goal.Behavioural Processes,88(1),20-26.
*Chang,W.-T. (2020). The effects of age,gender, and control deviceina virtual reality driving simulation. Symmetry,12(6),Article e995.https://doi.org/10.3390/ syml2060995
*Chebat, J.-C., Gelinas-Chebat, C.,amp; Therrien,K. (2008). Gender-related wayfinding time of mall shoppers. Journal ofBusiness Research,61(10),1076-1082.
*Chen,C.H.,Chang,W.C.,amp;Chang,W.T.(2009).Gender differencesin relation to wayfinding strategies,navigational support design,and wayfinding task difficulty.Journal of Environmental Psychology,29(2),220-226.
*Chen,C.-H.,amp;Chen,M.-X.(2020).Wayfinding invirtual environments with landmarks on overview maps. Interactingwith Computers,32(3),316-329.
*Chen,W.,Liu,B.,Li,X.,Wang,P.,amp; Wang,B.(2020).Sex differences in spatial memory. Neuroscience,443,140-147.
*Cherep,L.A.,Kelly,J.W.,Miller,A.,Lim,A.F.,amp;Gilbert, S.B.(2023). Individual differences in teleporting through virtual environments.Journal ofExperimental Psychology: Applied,29(1),111-123.
Cheung,M.W.L.(2014).Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: A structural equation modelingapproach.PsychologicalMethods,19(2),211-229.
Cheung,M.W.L.(2o19).A guide to conductinga meta-analysis with non-independent effect sizes. Neuropsychology Review, 29(4),387-396.
*Chrastil,E.R.,amp; Warren, W.H.(2015).Active and passive spatial learning in human navigation:Acquisition of graph knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory,and Cognition,41(4),1162-1178.
*Cimadevila,J.M.,Canovas,R.,Iribarne,L.,Soria,A.,amp; Lopez,L.(2oll).A virtual-based task to assess place avoidance in humans.Journal ofNeuroscienceMethods, 196(1),45-50.
*Coluccia,E.,,Iosue,G.,amp; Antonella Brandimonte,M. (2007). The relationship between map drawing and spatial orientation abilities:A study of gender differences. Journal ofEnvironmental Psychology,27(2),135-144.
Coutrot,A.,Manley,E.,Goodroe,S.,Gahnstrom,C., Filomena,G.,Yesiltepe,D.,...Spiers,H.J.(2022). Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature, 604,104-110.
*Coutrot,A.,Schmidt,S.,Coutrot,L.,Pittman,J.,Hong,L, Wiener,J.M.,..Spiers,H.J. (2019).Virtual navigationtested on a mobile app is predictive of real-world wayfinding navigation performance.PLoS ONE,14(3),Article e0213272. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213272
Coutrot,A.,Silva,R.,Manley,E.,de Cothi,W.,Sami,S., Bohbot, V.D.,..Spiers,H.J. (2018).Global determinants of navigation ability.Current Biology,28(17),2861-2866.
*Cushman,L.A.,amp; Duffy, C.J.(2007).The sex specificity of navigational strategies in Alzheimer disease.Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders,21(2),122-129.
*Dahmani,L.,Ledoux,A.A.,Boyer,P.,amp;Bohbot,V.D. (2012).Wayfinding:The effects of large displaysand 3-D perception.Behavior Research Methods,44(2),447-454.
*Daugherty,A.M.,Yuan,P.,Dahle,C.L.,Bender,A.R., Yang,Y.,amp; Raz,N.(2015).Path complexityin virtual water maze navigation: Differential associations with age, sex, and regional brain volume. Cerebral Cortex, 25(9), 3122-3131.
*Davis,H.E.,Stack,J.,amp; Cashdan,E.(2021).Cultural change reduces gender differences in mobility and spatial ability among seminomadic pastoralist-forager children in NorthernNamibia.HumanNature,32(1),178-206.
*De Goede, M.,amp; Postma,A. (2015).Learning your way in a city:Experience and gender differences in configurational knowledge of one's environment. Frontiers in Psychology, 6,Article e402.https://oi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00402
*Delage,V.,Trudel,G.,Retanal,F(xiàn).,amp; Maloney,E.A.(2022). Spatial anxiety and spatial ability:Mediators of gender differences in math anxiety.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,151(4),921-933.
Dong,W.,Qin,T.,Yang,T.,Liao,H.,Liu,B.,Meng,L.,amp;Liu, Y.(2022).Wayfinding behavior and spatial knowledge acquisition:Are they the same in virtual realityandin real-world environments.Annals of the American Association ofGeographers,112(1),226-246.
*Dong,W., Zhan,Z.,Liao,H.,Meng,L.,amp; Liu,J.(2020). Assessing similarities and differences between males and females in visual behaviors in spatial orientation tasks. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information,9(2), Article e115.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9020115
Duval,S.,amp; Tweedie,R.(20oo).Trimand fill:A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics,56(2),455-463.
Ellemers,N. (2018). Gender stereotypes.Annual Review of Psychology,69(1),275-298.
*Fajnerova,I.,Rodriguez,M.,Levcik,D.,Konradova,L., Mikolas,P.,Brom,C.,...Horacek,J.(2014).Avirtual reality task based on animal research - Spatial learning and memory in patients after the first episode of schizophrenia.Frontiersin Behavioral Neuroscience,8, Article e157.https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00157
*Fang,H.,Hu,Y.,Yang,L.,amp; Liu,Y. (2020).The role of phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad in virtual maze wayfinding. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 67,Article e101378.https://doi.org/j.jenvp.2019.101378
*Ferguson,T.D.,Livingstone-Lee,S.A.,amp; Skelton,R.W. (2019).Incidental learning of allocentric and egocentric strategies by both men and women in a dual-strategy virtual Morris Water Maze.Behavioural Brain Research, 364,281-295.
*Fernandez-Baizan,C.,Arias,J.L.,amp;Mendez,M.(2019). Spatial memory in young adults:Gender differences in egocentric and allocentric performance.Behavioural Brain Research,359,694-700.
*Fernandez-Baizan,C.,Arias,J.L.,amp; Mendez, M.(2020). Spatial memory assessment reveals age-related differences inegocentric and allocentric memory performance. Behavioural Brain Research,388,Article el12646. https://doi.0rg/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112646
*Fortenbaugh,F(xiàn).C., Chaudhury,S.,Hicks,J.C.,Hao,L.,amp; Turano,K.A.(2007).Gender diferencesincue preference during path integration in virtual environments. ACMTransactions onApplied Perception,4(1),Article e6. https://doi.org/10.1145/1227134.1227140
*Foti,F(xiàn).,Ruscio,K.,Cento,G.,Pullano,L.,amp; Di Nuovo,S. (2023). Can an observational training improve the ability of children to navigate in familiar and unfamiliar environments? Journal ofEnvironmental Psychology,86,Article e101954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.101954
*Gabriel,K.I.,Hong,S.M.,Chandra,M.,Lonborg,S.D.,amp; Barkley,C.L.(20l1).Gender differences in the effects of acute stress on spatial ability.Sex Roles,64(1-2),81-89.
*Gagnon,K.T.,Cashdan,E.A.,Stefanucci,J.K.,amp;CreemRegehr,S.H. (20l6). Sex differences in exploration behavior and the relationship to harm avoidance. Human Nature,27(1),82-97.
*Gagnon,K.T.,Thomas,B.J.,Munion,A.,Creem-Regehr, S.H.,Cashdan,E.A.,amp; Stefanucci,J.K.(2o18).Not all those who wander are lost: Spatial exploration patterns and their relationship to gender and spatial memory. Cognition,180,108-117.
Gao,S.,Assink,M.,Cipriani,A.,amp;Lin,K.(2017).Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: Ameta-analytic review.Clinical Psychology Review,57, 59-74
*Gazova,I,acz6,J,ubinova,E.okrisova,I,Hyncicova,E., Andel,R.,..Hort,J. (2o13).Spatial navigationinyoungversus older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience,5,Article e94.https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2013.00094
*Gerven,D.V.,Schneider,A.N., Wuitchik,D.M.,amp;Skelton,R. W.(2012).Direct measurement of spontaneous strategy selection in a virtual Morris water maze shows females choose an allocentric strategy at least as often as males do. Behavioral Neuroscience,126(3),465-478.
*Goeke,C.Korpetpanee,S.,Koster, M.,F(xiàn)erandez-Revelles, A.B.,Gramann,K.,amp;Konig,P.(2015).Cultural background shapesspatial reference frame proclivity.Scientific Reports,5(1), Articlee11426.https://doi.org/10.1038/srep11426
Gron,G., Wunderlich,A.P.,Spitzer,M.,Tomczak,R.,amp;Riepe, M.W.(2ooo).Brain activation during human navigation: Gender-diffrent neural networksas substrate of performance. NatureNeuroscience,3(4),404-408.
Hafting,T.,F(xiàn)yhn,M.,Molden,S.,Moser,M.B.,amp;Moser,E. I.(2005).Microstructure of a spatial map in the entorhinal cortex.Nature,436(7052),801-806.
Halpern,D.F. (20ll).Sex differencesin cognitive abilities (4th ed.).Erlbaum.
Harrer,M.,Cuijpers,P.,F(xiàn)urukawa,T.A.,amp; Ebert,D.D. (2021).Doing meta-analysiswith R:A hands-on guide. Chapman and Hall/CRC Press.
*Harris,T.,Scheuringer,A.,amp;Pletzer,B.(2019).Perspective and strategy interactively modulate sex differences in a 3D navigation task.Biology ofSex Differences,10(1),Article e17.https://doi.0rg/10.1186/s13293-019-0232-z
*Head,D.,amp; Isom,M. (2010). Age effects on wayfinding and route learning skills. Behavioural Brain Research, 209(1),49-58.
*Hedge,C.,Weaver,R.,amp; Schnall,S.(2017).Spatial learning and wayfinding in an immersive environment: The digital fulldome.Cyberpsychology,Behavior,andSocial Networking,20(5),327-333.
Hemmer,I.,Hemmer,M.,Neidhardt,E.,Obermaier,G., Uphues,R.,amp; Wrenger,K.(2013).The influence of children’s prior knowledge and previous experience on their spatial orientation skillsin an urban environment. Education 3-13,43(2),184-196.
*Hilliard,D.,Passow,S.,Thurm,F(xiàn).,Schuck,N.W.,Garthe, A.,Kempermann,G.,amp;Li,S.-C.(2019).Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation modulates spatial memory in young healthyadults.Scientific Reports,9(1),Article e9310. https://doi.0rg/10.1038/s41598-019-45757-0
Hills,T. T.,Todd,P.M.,Lazer, D.,Redish,A.D.,amp; Couzin, I.D.(2015).Exploration versus exploitation in space, mind,and society. Trendsin Cognitive Sciences,19(1), 46-54.
Hofstede, G. (1984).Culture's consequences:International differencesinwork-related values.Sage Publications.
*Holden,M.P.,amp; Hampson,E. (2021).Endogenous variation in estradiol in women affects the weighting of metric and categorical information in spatial location memory. Hormones and Behavior,128,Article el04909. https://doiorg/ 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104909
*H?lscher, C., Buchner, S.J.,Meilinger,T.,amp; Strube,G. (2009).Adaptivityof wayfindingstrategiesina multi-building ensemble: The effects of spatial structure, task requirements,and metric information.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(2),208-219.
Hox,J.J.,Moerbeek,M.,amp; van de Schoot,R.(2017). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications.Routledge.
*Huang,X.,amp; Voyer, D.(2017). Timing and sex effcts on the \"Spatial Orientation Test\":A World War II map reading test.SpatialCognitionandComputation,17(4),251-272.
Hults,C.M.,F(xiàn)rancis,R.C.,Clint,E.K.,Smith,W.,Sober,E. R.,GarlandJr,T.,amp;Rhodes,J.S.(2024).Stillitleevidence sexdifferences in spatial navigation are evolutionary adaptations. Royal Society Open Science,1l(1),Article e231532. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.231532
*Hund,A.M.,amp; Gill,D.M. (2014).What constitutes effective wayfinding directions:The interactive role of descriptive cues and memory demands.Journal of Environmental Psychology,38,217-224.
Hund,A.M.,amp; Minarik,J.L.(2006).Getting from here to there:Spatial anxiety,wayfinding strategies,direction type,and wayfinding efficiency.Spatial Cognition and Computation,6(3),179-201.
Hund,A.M.,amp; Padgit, A.J. (2010).Direction giving and following in the service of wayfinding in a complex indoor environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4),553-564.
Hyde,J.S. (2oo5).The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(6),581-592.
*Irving,S.,choberl,F(xiàn).,Praan,C.,Brendel,.,Bartetein, P.,Dieterich,M.,Brandt,T.,amp; Zwergal,A.(2018).A novel real-space navigation paradigm reveals age- and gender-dependent changes of navigational strategies and hippocampal activation. Journal of Neurology, 265(1), 113-126.
*Ishikawa,T.,amp;Takahashi,K.(2014).Relationships between methods for presenting information on navigation tools andusers'wayfinding behavior. Cartographic Perspectives, 75,17-28.
Jang,H.,Boesch,C.,Mundry,R.,Kandza,V.,amp;Janmaat,K.R. (2019).Sun,age and test location affect spatial orientation in human foragers in rainforests.Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,286(1912),Article e20190934. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.0934
*Jelinek,M.,Kvéton,P.,amp;Vobofil,D.(2015).Innovative testing of spatial ability:Interactive responding and the use of complex stimuli material. Cognitive Processing, 16(1),45-55.
*Kastens,K.A.,amp; Liben,L.S.(2007).Eliciting selfexplanations improves children’s performance on a field-based mapskillstask.Cognitionand Instruction,25(1),45-74.
*Kelly,J.W.,McNamara,T.P.,Bodenheimer,B.,Carr,T.H.,amp; Rieser,J.J.(2oo9). Individual differences in using geometric and featural cues to maintain spatial orientation: Cue quantity and cue ambiguity are more important than cue type.Psychonomic Bulletin amp; Review,16(1),176-181.
Kim,B.,Lee,S.,amp;Lee,J.(2oo7).Genderdifferencesin spatial navigation. Proceedings of World Academy of Science Engineeringand Technology,25,297-300.
Kimura,D.(1999).Sex and cognition.The MITPress.
*Kober, S.E.,amp; Neuper, C. (201l). Sex differences in human EEG theta oscillations during spatial navigation in virtual eality. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 79(3),347-355.
Kong,X. Z.,Huang,Y.,Hao, X.,Hu, S.,amp; Liu, J.(2017). Sex-linked association between cortical scene selectivity and navigational ability.Neuroimage,158,397-405.
*Kong,X.Z.,Pu,Y.,Wang,X.,Xu,S.,Hao,X.,Zhen,Z.,amp; Liu,J.(2017).Intrinsic hippocampal-caudate interaction correlates with human navigation [Preprint]. BioRxiv, Article e116129.https://doi.org/10.1101/11612
*Korthauer,L.E.,Nowak,N.T.,F(xiàn)rahmand,M.,amp; Driscoll,I. (2017). Cognitive correlates of spatial navigation: Associations between executive functioning and the virtual Morris WaterTask.Behavioural BrainResearch,317,470-478.
*Koulouri,T.,Lauria,S.,Macredie,R.D.,amp;Chen,S.(2012). Are we there yet?:The role of gender on the effectiveness andefficiencyofuser-robot communication in navigational tasks.ACMTransactionson Computer-HumanInteraction, 19(1), 1-29.
*Kremmyda,O.,Hufner,K.,F(xiàn)lanagin,V.L.,Hamilton,D.A., Linn,J.,Strupp,M.,Jahn,K.,amp; Brandt,T.(2016). Beyond dizziness:Virtual navigation, spatial anxiety and hippocampal volume in bilateral vestibulopathy. Frontiers inHumanNeuroscience,10,Article el39.https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00139
Labate,E.,Pazzaglia,F(xiàn).,amp; Hegarty,M.(2014).What working memory subcomponents are needed in the acquisition of survey knowledge? Evidence from direction estimation and shortcut tasks.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 37,73-79.
Lauer,J.,Yhang,E.,amp; Lourenco,S.F.(2019).The development of gender differences in spatial reasoning: A meta-analytic review.Psychological Bulletin,145(6), 537-565.
Lavenex, P.B.,amp; Lavenex,P. (20l0). Spatial relational learning and memory abilities do not differ between men and women in a real-world,open-field environment. Behavioural BrainResearch,207(1),125-137.
Learmonth,A.E.,Newcombe,N.S.,Sheridan,N.,amp;Jones,M. (2008).Why size counts:Children’s spatial reorientation in large and small enclosures. Developmental Science, 11(3),414-426.
Lee,Y.,Capraro,R.M.,amp; Bicer,A.(2019).Gender difference on spatial visualization by college students’ major types as STEM and non-STEM:A meta-analysis. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology,50(8),1241-1255.
*Lemieux, C.L., Collin, C.A.,amp; Watier,N.N. (2019). Gender differences in metacognitive judgments and performance ona goal-directed wayfinding task.Journal ofCognitive Psychology,31(4),453-466.
*León,I.,Cimadevilla,J.M.,amp;Tascon,L.(2014).Developmental gender differences in children in a virtual spatial memory task.Neuropsychology,28(4),485-495.
*Liang,H.-N.,Lu,F(xiàn).,Shi,Y.,Nanjappan,V.,amp; Papangelis, K.(2ol9).Evaluating the effects of collaboration and competition in navigation tasks and spatial knowledge acquisition within virtual reality environments. Future Generation Computer Systems,95,855-866.
*Liao,H.,amp;Dong,W. (20l7).An exploratory study investigating gender effects on using 3D maps for spatial orientation in wayfinding.ISPRs International Journal of Geo-Information, 6(3),Article e60. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi6030060
*Liben,L.S.,Myers,L.J.,Christensen,A.E.,amp;Bower,C.A. (2013).Environmental-scale map use in middle childhood: Links to spatial skills,strategies,and gender.Child Development, 84(6),2047-2063.
*Lin,C.T.,Huang,T.Y.,Lin,W.J.,Chang,S.Y.,Lin,Y.H.,Ko. L.W.,Hung,D.L.,amp; Chang,E.C.(2012).Gender differences in wayfinding in virtual environments with global or local landmarks.Journal of Environmental Psychology,32(2), 89-96.
*Lind,S.E.,Willams,D.M.,Raber,J.,Peel,A.,amp;Bowler,D. M.(2013). Spatial navigation impairments among intellectually high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder: Exploring relations with theory of mind,episodic memory, and episodic future thinking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(4),1189-1199.
Linn, M.C.,amp; Petersen,A. C.(1985).Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability:A meta-analysis.Child Development, 56(6),1479-1498.
Lipsey,M.W.,amp; Wilson,D.B.(2001).Practical meta analysis. Sage Publications.
Lithfous,S.,Dufour,A.,amp;Despres,O. (2o13).Spatialnavigation in normal aging and the prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease:Insights from imaging and behavioral studies. AgeingResearch Reviews,12(1),201-213.
*Liu,I.,Levy,R.M.,Barton,J.J.S.,amp;Iaria,G.(2011).Age and gender differencesin various topographical orientation strategies.BrainResearch,1410,112-119.
Lloyd,J.,Persaud,N.V.,amp;Powell,T.E.(20o9).Equivalenceof real-world and virtual-reality route learning: A pilot study. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 12(4),423-427.
Long,X.,Deng,B.,Young,C.K.,Liu,G.L., Zhong,Z., Chen,Q.,...Zhang,S.J.(2022).Sharp tuning of head direction and angular head velocity cels in the somatosensory cortex.Advanced Science,9(14),Article e2200020. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202200020
Long,X.,Wang,X.,Deng,B.,Shen,R.,Lv, S.Q.,amp; Zhang, S.J.(2o24).Intrinsic bipolar head-direction cellsin the medial entorhinal cortex.Advanced Science,Article e2401216.https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202401216
Long,X.,amp; Zhang,S.J.(2021).A novel somatosensory spatial navigation system outside the hippocampal formation. Cell Research,31(6),649-663.
*Lopez,A.,Postma,A.,amp; Bosco,A.(2020).Categoricalamp; coordinate spatial information:Can they be disentangled in sketch maps?Journal ofEnvironmental Psychology,68, Article e101392.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101392
*Lourenco,S.F.,Addy,D.,Huttenlocher,J.,amp; Fabian,L. (2011). Early sex differences in weighting geometric cues. Developmental Science,14(6),1365-1378.
*Lovden,M.,Herlitz,A.,Schellenbach,M.,Grossman-Hutter, B.,Kruger,A.,amp;Lindenberger,U.(2oo7).Quantitative and qualitative sex differences in spatial navigation. Scandinavian Journal ofPsychology, 48(5),353-358.
Lyons,I.M.,Ramirez,G.,Maloney,E.A., Rendina,D.N., Levine,S.C.,amp;Beilock,S.L.(2018).Spatial anxiety:A novel questionnaire with subscales for measuring three aspectsof spatial anxiety.Journal ofNumerical Cognition, 4(3),526-553.
Maeda,Y.,amp; Yoon, S. Y. (2013).A meta-analysis on gender differences in mental rotation ability measured bythe Purduespatial visualization tests:Visualizationof rotations (PSVT: R). Educational Psychology Review, 25(1),69-94.
*Mandolesi,L.,Petrosini,L.,Menghini,D.,Addona,F(xiàn).,amp; Vicari,S.(2o09).Children’s radial arm maze performance asafunction of age and sex.International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience,27(8),789-797.
Marchette,S.A.,Bakker,A.,amp; Shelton,A.L.(2011). Cognitive mappers to creatures of habit: Differential engagement of place and response learning mechanisms predicts human navigational behavior. Journal of Neuroscience,31(43), 15264-15268.
Martens,J.,amp; Antonenko,P.D.(2012).Narrowing genderbased performance gaps in virtual environment navigation. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(3), 809-819.
McKinney,S.,Tomovic,C.,Grant,M.,amp;Hinton,K.(2017). Increasing STEM competence in urban,high poverty elementary school populations.K-12 Stem Education,3(4). 267-282.
*Meilinger,T.,Riecke,B.E.,amp; Bulthoff,H.H.(2014). Local and global reference frames for environmental spaces. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,67(3), 542-569.
*Memikoglu, I.,amp; Demirkan, H. (2020). Exploring staircases as architectural cues in virtual vertical navigation. International JournalofHuman-Computer Studies,138,Articlee102397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102397
Mendez-Lopez,M.,F(xiàn)idalgo,C.,Osma,J.,amp;Juan,M.C.(2020). Wayfinding strategy and gender-testing the mediating effectsofwayfinding experience,personalityand emotions. PsychologyResearchandBehaviorManagement,13,19-131.
Meneghetti,C.,Pazzaglia,F(xiàn).,amp;DeBeni,R.(2011).Spatial mental representations derived from survey and route descriptions:When individuals prefer extrinsic frame of reference. Learning and Individual Diffrences,21(2), 150-157.
Merhav,M.,amp; Wolbers,T.(2019).Aging and spatial cues influence the updating of navigational memories.Scientific Reports,9(1),Article el1469.https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-019-47971-2
*Merrill,E.C.,Yang,Y.,Roskos,B.,amp; Steele,S.(2016).Sex differences in using spatial and verbal abilities influence route learning performance in a virtual environment:A comparison of 6-to 12-year old boysand girls.Frontiers inPsychology,7,Article e258.https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2016.00258
Min,Y.H.,amp; Ha,M.(2021).Contributionof colour-zoning differentiation to multidimensional spatial knowledge acquisition in symmetrical hospital wards. Indoor and Built Environment,30(6),787-800.
Moffat,S.D., Hampson,E.,amp; Hatzipantelis,M.(1998). Navigation in a \"virtual\" maze:Sex differences and correlation with psychometric measures of spatial ability inhumans.EvolutionandHumanBehavior,19,73-87.
Moser,M.B.,amp; Moser,E.L.(2016).Where amI?Where amIgoing?ScientificAmerican,314(1),26-33.
*Mueller, S.C., Verwilst, T.,Van Branteghem,A.,T'Sjoen, G.,amp;Cools,M.(2o16).The contribution of the androgen receptor (AR) in human spatial learning and memory:A study in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome(CAIS).Hormones and Behavior,78,121-126.
*Munion,A.K., Stefanucci,J.K.,Rovira,E.,Squire,P.,amp; Hendricks,M. (2019).Gender differences in spatial navigation: Characterizing wayfinding behaviors.Psychonomic Bulletin and Review,26(6),1933-1940.
*Munoz-Montoya,F(xiàn).,F(xiàn)idalgo,C.,Juan, M.-C.,amp; Mendez-Lopez, M.(2019).Memory for object location in augmented reality: The role of gender and the relationship among spatial and anxiety outcomes.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,13, Article e113. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00113
*Munzer, S.,amp; Stahl,C.(2011).Learning routes from visualizations for indoor wayfinding:Presentation modes and individual differences.Spatial Cognition and Computation, 11(4),281-312.
*Munzer, S.,amp; Zadeh,M.V.(2016).Acquisition of spatial knowledge through self-directed interaction with avirtual model of a multi-level building: Efects of training and individual differences.Computersin Human Behavior,64, 191-205.
*Nardi,D.,Meloni,R.,Orlandi,M.,amp;Olivetti-Belardinelli, M.(2014).Where is uphill? Exploring sex differences when reorienting on a sloped environment presented through 2-D images. Perception,43(4),249-264.
*Nardi,D.,Newcombe,N.S.,amp; Shipley,T.F.(2013). Reorienting with terrain slope and landmarks. Memory and Cognition,41(2),214-228.
Nazareth,A.,Huang,X.,Voyer,D.,amp;Newcombe,N.(2019). A meta-analysis of sex differences in human navigation skills.Psychonomic Bulletin and Review,26(5),1503-1528.
*Nazareth,A.,Weisberg, S.M.,Margulis,K.,amp; Newcombe, N.S.(2018). Charting the development of cognitive mapping.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,170, 86-106.
*Néma,E.,Kalina,A.,Nikolai,T.,Vyhnalek,M.,Meluzinova, E.,amp;Laczó,J.(2o21).Spatial navigation in early multiple sclerosis:A neglected cognitive marker of the disease? Journal ofNeurology,268(1),77-89.
*New,J.,Krasnow,M.M.,Truxaw,D.,amp; Gaulin,S.J.C. (2007).Spatial adaptations for plant foraging:Women excel and calories count. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,274(1626),2679-2684.
*Newhouse,P.,Newhouse,C.,amp; Astur,R.(2007).Sex differences in visual-spatial learning using a virtual water maze in pre-pubertal children.Behavioural Brain Research, 183(1),1-7.
Noachtar,I.,Harris,T.A.,Hidalgo-Lopez,E.,amp;Pletzer,B. (2022).Sex and strategy effects on brain activation during a 3D-navigation task. Communications Biology, 5(1), Article e234.https://doi.0rg/10.1038/s42003-022-03147-9
Nori,R.,Mercuri,N.,Giusberti,F(xiàn).,Bensi,L.,amp;Gambetti,E. (2009).Influences of gender role socialization and anxiety on spatialcognitivestyle.TheAmericanJournalofPsychology, 122(4),497-505.
*Nori,R.,amp; Piccardi,L.(2015).I believe I'mgood at orienting myself... But is that true? Cognitive Processing, 16(3),301-307.
*Nori,R.,Piccardi,.,aaletti,A,Goro,M.,Rosseti,A., Argento,O.,amp; Guariglia,C.(2018).No gender differences in egocentric and allocentric environmental transformation after compensating for male advantage by manipulating familiarity.Frontiers in Neuroscience,12,Article e204. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00204
*Nori,R.,Piccardi,L.,Migliori, M.,Guidazzoli,A.,F(xiàn)rasca, F.,De Luca,D.,amp; Giusberti,F(xiàn).(2015).The virtual reality Walking Corsi Test. Computers in Human Behavior,48, 72-77.
*Nowak,N.T.,Diamond,M.P.,Land,S.J.,amp; Moffat, S.D. (2014).Contributions of sex,testosterone,and androgen receptor CAG repeat number to virtual Morris water maze performance.Psychoneuroendocrinology,41,13-22.
*Nowak,N.T.,amp; Moffat,S.D.(2011).The relationship between second to fourth digit ratio,spatial cognition,and virtual navigation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(3), 575-585.
*Nowak,N.T.,Murali,A.,amp; Driscoll,I.(2015).Factors related to sex differences in navigating a computerized maze.Journal ofEnvironmentalPsychology,43,136-144.
*Pacheco-Cobos,L.,Roseti, M., Cuatianquiz,C.,amp;Hudson. R.(201o).Sex differences in mushroom gathering:Men expend more energy to obtain equivalent benefits. Evolution and Human Behavior,31(4),289-297.
*Padilla,L.M.,Creem-Regehr, S.H., Stefanucci, J.K.,amp; Cashdan,E.A.(2017).Sex differences in virtual navigation influenced by scale and navigation experience. Psychonomic Bulletinand Review,24(2),582-590.
*Palermo,L.,Iaria,G.,amp; Guariglia,C.(2oo8).Mental imagery skills and topographical orientation in humans:A correlation study.BehaviouralBrainResearch,192(2),248-253.
*Palmiero,M.,Nori,R.,Rogolino,C.,D'amico,S.,amp; Piccardi,L.(20l6). Sex differences in visuospatial and navigational working memory:The role of mood induced by background music. Experimental Brain Research, 234(8),2381-2389.
*Paperno,N.,Rupp,M. A.,Parkhurst,E.L., MaboudouTchao,E.M.,Smither,J.A.-A.,Bricout,J.,amp;Behal,A. (2019).Age and gender differences in performance for operating a robotic manipulator.IEEE Transactions on Human-MachineSystems,49(2),137-149.
Persson,J.,Herlitz,A.,Engman,J.,Morell,A., Sjolie,D., Wikstrom, J.,amp; Soderlund,H. (2013).Remembering our origin:Gender differences in spatial memory are reflected ingender differences in hippocampal lateralization. Behavioural BrainResearch,256,219-228.
*Piber,D.,Nowacki,J.,Mueller, S.C.,Wingenfeld,K.,amp; Otte,C.(2018). Sex effects on spatial learning but not on spatial memory retrieval in healthy young adults. BehaviouralBrainResearch,336,44-50.
*Piccardi,L.,Bianchini,F(xiàn).,Iasevoli,L.,Giannone,G.,amp; Guariglia,C.(2o1l).Sex differences in a landmark environmental re-orientation task only during the learning phase.NeuroscienceLetters,503(3),181-185.
*Piccardi,L.,Iaria,G.,Ricci,M.,Bianchini,F(xiàn).,Zompanti,L.,amp; Guariglia, C.(2008).Walking in the Corsi test:Which type of memory do you need? Neuroscience Letters, 432(2),127-131.
*Piccardi, L., Leonzi, M.,D'Amico, S., Marano,A.,amp; Guariglia, C.(2014).Development of navigational working memory:Evidence from 6-to 10-year-old children.British JournalofDevelopmentalPsychology,32(2),205-217.
*Piccardi,L.,Risetti,M.,Nori,R.,Tanzilli,A.,Bernardi,L,amp; Guariglia, C. (2011).Perspective changing in primary and secondary learning:A gender difference study. Learning and Individual Differences,21(1),114-118.
*Picucci,L.,Caffo,A.O.,amp;Bosco,A.(20ll).Besides navigation accuracy:Gender differences in strategy selection and level of spatial confidence.Journal of Environmental Psychology,31(4),430-438.
Pintzka,C.W.S.,Evensmoen,H.R.,Lehn,H.,amp;Haberg,A. K.(2016). Changes in spatial cognition and brain activity aftera single dose of testosterone in healthy women. BehaviouralBrainResearch,298,78-90.
*Pletzer,B.,Steinbeisser,J.,van Laak,L.,amp; Harris,T. (2019).Beyond biological sex: Interactive effects of gender roleand sex hormones on spatial abilities.Frontiersin Neuroscience,13,Article e675.https://doi.org/10.3389/ fnins.2019.00675
Postma,A.,van Oers,M.,Back,F(xiàn).,amp; Plukaard,S.(2012). Losing your car in the parking lot: Spatial memory in the real world.Applied Cognitive Psychology,26(5),680-686.
Poulter,S.,Hartley, T.,amp; Lever, C.(2018). The neurobiology of mammalian navigation. Current Biology,28(17),1023-1042.
Pruden,S.M.,Levine,S.C.,amp; Huttenlocher,J.(2011). Children's spatial thinking:Does talk about the spatial world matter?Developmental Science,14(6),1417-1430.
Pruden,S.M.,Nazareth,A.,Odean,R.,Abad,C.,Bravo,E.,amp; Garcia,N. (2020).Movement, space,and the development of spatial thinking.In The Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Development (pp.1-15). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171492.wecad029
*Pu,Y.,Cornwell,B.R.,Cheyne,D.,amp;Johnson,B.W.(2020). Gender differences in navigation performance are associated with differential theta and high-gamma activitiesin the hippocampus and parahippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research,391,Article e112664.https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.bbr.2020.112664
*Rahman, Q.,amp; Koerting,J. (20o8).Sexual orientation-related differences in allcentric spatial memory tasks.Hippocampus, 18(1), 55-63.
*Richardson,A.E.,Powers,M.E.,amp; Bousquet,L.G.(2011). Video game experience predicts virtual, but not real navigation performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(1),552-560.
*Richardson,A.E.,amp;VanderKaay Tomasulo,M.M.(2011). Influence of acute stress on spatial tasks in humans. Physiology and Behavior,103(5),459-466.
*Rodriguez-Andres,D.,Mendez-Lopez,M.,Juan,M.-C,amp; Perez-Hernandez,E. (2ol8).A virtual object-location task for children:Gender and videogame experience influence navigation; age impacts memory and completion time. Frontiers in Psychology,9, Article e451. htps://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00451
*Rosenthal,H.E.S.,Norman,L.,Smith,S.P.,amp; McGregor A. (2012). Gender-based navigation stereotype improves men's search for a hidden goal. Sex Roles,67(11-12), 682-695.
Santos,B.S.,Dias,P.,,Pimentel,A.,Baggerman,J.W., Ferreira,C.,amp;Silva,S.,amp;Madeira,J.(20o8).Head-mounted display versus desktop for 3D navigationin virtual reality: A user study.Multimedia Tools and Applications,37(2), 161-181.
*Sargent,J.Q.,Zacks,J.M.,Hambrick,D.Z.,amp;Lin,N. (2019).Event memory uniquely predicts memory for large-scale space.Memory and Cognition,47(2),212-228.
*cheuringer,A.,amp; Pletzer, B. (2017).Sex differences and menstrual cycle dependent changes in cognitive strategies during spatial navigation and verbal fluency. Frontiers in Psychology,iclee81.htps:/o/13sy. 2017.00381
*Schoedel,R.,Hilbert,S.,Buhner,M.,amp; Stachl,C.(2018). One way to guide them al: Wayfinding strategies and the examination of gender-specific navigational instructions inareal-drivingcontext.Transportation Research PartF: Traffic Psychologyand Behaviour,58,754-768.
*Schoenfeld,R.,Lehmann, W.,amp; Leplow,B.(2010).Effects of age and sex in mental rotation and spatial learning from virtual environments.Journal of Individual Differences, 31(2),78-82.
*Schoenfeld,R.,Moenich,N.,Mueller,F(xiàn).-J.,Lehmann,W.,amp; Leplow, B. (201o).Search strategies in a human water maze analogue analyzed with automatic classification methods.Behavioural Brain Research,208(1),169-177.
Schug,M.G. (2016a).Geographical cues and developmental exposure:Navigational style,wayfinding anxiety,and childhood experience in the Faroe Islands.Human Nature, 27(1),68-81.
Schug,M.G. (20l6b). Factors in the development of spatial cognition in boys and girls.Boyhood Studies,9(2),44-55.
Silverman,I.,Choi,J.,amp; Peters,M.(20o7).The hunter-gatherer theory of sex differences in spatial abilities: Data from 40 countries.Archives ofSexual Behavior,36(2),261-268.
Silverman,I.,amp;Eals,M.(1992).Sex differences in spatial abilities:Evolutionary theory and data.InJ.H.Barkow,L. Cosmides,amp;J.Tooby (Eds.),The adapted mind:Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 533-549). Oxford University Press.
*Slone,E.,Burles,F(xiàn).,amp;Iaria,G.(2016).Environmental layout complexity affects neural activity during navigation in humans.European Journal ofNeuroscience,43(9),1146-1155.
*Sneider,J.T., Cohen-Gilbert,J.E.,Hamilton,D.A.,Stein, E.R.,Golan,N.,Oot,E.N.,Seraikas,A.M.,Rohan,M.L.. Harris,S.K.,Nickerson,L.D.,amp; Silveri,M.M.(2018). Adolescent hippocampal and prefrontal brain activation during performance of the virtual Morris water task. Frontiersin Human Neuroscience,12,Article e238. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00238
*Sneider,J.T.,Hamilton,D.A.,Cohen-Gilbert,J.E., Crowley,D.J.,Rosso,I.M.,amp; Silveri,M.M.(2015).Sex differences in spatial navigation and perception in human adolescents and emerging adults.Behavioural Processes, 111,42-50.
*Sneider,J.T.,Rogowska,J.,Sava,S.,amp; Yurgelun-Todd,D. A.(2011).A preliminary study of sex differencesin brain activation during a spatial navigation task in healthy adults.Perceptual and Motor Skills,113(2),461-480.
*Sorrentino,P.,Lardone,A.,Pesoli,M.,Liparoti,M., Montuori, S.,Curcio,G.,Sorrentino,G.,Mandolesi,L.,amp; Foti,F(xiàn). (2019). The development of spatial memory analyzed by means of ecological walking task.Frontiers in Psychology,10,Article e728.https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2019.00728
*Suzer,O. K.,amp; Olgunturk,N. (2018).The aid of colour on visuospatial navigation of elderly people in a virtual polyclinic environment.Color Research and Application, 43.https://doi.0rg/10.1002/col.22272
Taillade,M.,NKaoua,B.,amp; Sauzéon,H. (2016). Age-related differences and cognitive correlates of self-reported and direct navigation performance:The effect of real and virtual test conditionsmanipulation. Frontiersin Psychology,6Articlee234htps://g/1038/fsyg. 2015.02034
*Tarampi,M.R.,Heydari,N.,amp; Hegarty,M.(2016).A tale of two types of perspective taking: Sex differences in spatialability.Psychological Science,27(11),1507-1516.
*Tascón,L.,Castillo,J.,León,I.,amp; Cimadevilla,J.M. (2018).Walking and non-walking space in an equivalent vituai IvaIny tasr. StAuai uiuipiisI anu aging ueuine ofspatial abilities.Behavioural Brain Research,347, 201-208.
*Tippett,W.J.,Lee,J.-H.,Mraz,R.,Zakzanis,K.K.,Snyder. P.J.,Black,S.E.,amp;Graham,S.J.(2009).Convergent validity and sex differences in healthy elderly adults for performance on 3D virtual reality navigation learning and 2D hidden maze tasks. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 12(2),169-174.
*Tlauka,M.,Williams,J.,amp;Williamson,P.(20o8).Spatial abilityin secondary school students: Intra-sex differences based on self-selection for physical education.British Journal of Psychology,99(3),427-440.
*Torok,A.,Nguyen,T.P.,Kolozsvari,O.,Buchanan,R.J., amp; Nadasdy, Z. (2014). Reference frames in virtual spatial navigation are viewpoint dependent. Frontiersin Human Neuroscience,8,Articlee646.https:/doi.org/doi.org/10.3389/ fnhum.2014.00646
Trumble,B.C.,Gaulin,S.J.,Dunbar, M.D.,Kaplan,H.,amp; Gurven,M. (2016).No sex or age difference in deadreckoning ability among Tsimane forager-horticulturalists. Human Nature,27(1),51-67.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110- 015-9246-3
Uttal,D.H.,Meadow,N.G.,Tipton,E.,Hand,L.L.,Alden, A.R.,Warren,C.,amp; Newcombe,N.S.(2013).The malleability of spatial skills:A meta-analysis of training studies.Psychological Bulletin,139(2),352-402.
*van der Ham,I.J.M.,Claessen,M.H.G.,Evers,A.W.M., amp; van der Kuil,M.N.A.(2020).Large-scale assessment ofhuman navigation ability across the lifespan.Scientific Reports,10(1),Article e3299.htps:/doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-020-60302-0
*van der Ham,I.J.M.,van der Kuil,M.N.A.,amp; Claessen, M.H. G. (2021). Quality of self-reported cognition: Effects of ageand gender on spatial navigation self-reports.Aging and Mental Health,25(5),873-878.
*van Dun, C., van Kraaij,A., Wegman, J., Kuipers, J., Aarts, E.,amp; Janzen,G. (2o2O).Sex differences and the role of gaming experience in spatial cognition performance in primary school children:An exploratory study. Brain Sciences,11(7),Article e886.https://doi.org/10.3390/ brainsci11070886
*van Hoogmoed,A.H.,Wegman, J.,van den Brink,D.,amp; Janzen,G. (2022).Development of landmark use for navigation in children: Effects of age,sex,working memory and landmark type.Brain Sciences,12(6),Article e776. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12060776
*Vashro,L.,Padilla,L.,amp; Cashdan,E.(2016).Sex differences in mobility and spatial cognition: A test of the fertility and parental care hypothesis in Northwestern Namibia.Human Nature,27(1),16-34.
*Ventura,M.,Shute,V.,Wright,T.,amp; Zhao,W. (2013).An investigationof the validity of the virtual spatial navigation assessment.FrontiersinPsychology,4,Article e852.htps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00852
*Verde,P.,Piccardi,L.,Bianchini,F(xiàn).,Guariglia,C.,Caroo, P.,Morgagni, F.,.. Tomao,E. (2015). Gender differences in navigational memory:Pilots vs.nonpilots.Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 86(2),103-111.
Viechtbauer,W.(2olo).Conductingmeta-analyses inRwith the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3). 1-48.
Vieites,V.,Pruden,S.M.,Shusterman,A.,amp; Reeb-Sutherland, B.C.(2020).Using hippocampal-dependent eyeblink conditioning to predict individual differences in spatial reorientationstrategiesin 3-to6-year-olds.Developmental Science,23(1),Articlee12867.https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12867
*Vilar,E.,Rebelo,F(xiàn).,amp; Noriega,P.(2012).Indoor human wayfinding performance using vertical and horizontal signage in virtual reality. Human Factors and Ergonomics inManufacturing and Service Industries,24(6),601-615.
*von Stulpnagel,R.,amp; Steffens,M.C.(2013).Active route learning in virtual environments:Disentangling movement control from intention, instruction specificity,and navigation control. Psychological Research,77(5),555-574.
Voyer,D.(2011).Time limits and gender differences on paper-and-pencil tests of mental rotation: A meta-analysis. PsychonomicBulletinandReview,18,267-277.
*Wang,C.,Chen,Y., Zheng,S.,amp;Liao,H. (2018).Gender and age differences in using indoor maps for wayfinding inreal environments. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information,8(1),Article el1.https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijgi8010011
*Wang,J.,Wang,Y.C.,Shen,C.W.,amp; Lin,P.C.(2020). Who needs automotive on-board navigation systems? Predicting operational performance from spatial anxiety and gender differences.Transportation Planning and Technology,43(6),539-552.
*Weisberg,S.M.,Nardi,D.,Newcombe,N.S.,amp; Shipley,T. F.(2014).Up by upwest:Is slope like north?Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,67(10),1959-1976.
*Weisberg, S.M.,amp; Newcombe,N.S.(2016).How do (some) people make a cognitive map? Routes, places,and Working memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,Memory,and Cognition,42(5),768-785.
*Weisberg,S.M.,Schinazi,V.R.,Newcombe,N.S.,Shipley T.F.,amp; Epstein,R.A.(2014).Variations in cognitive maps:Understanding individual differences in navigation. Journalof Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory, and Cognition,40(3),669-682.
*Wiener, J.M.,Kmecova,H.,amp; de Condappa, O.(2012). Routerepetition and route retracing:Effects of cognitive aging.Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience,4,Article e7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2012.00007
*Woods,K.J.,Thomas,K.G.F.,Molteno,C.D.,Jacobson,J. L.,Jacobson,S.W.,amp; Meintjes,E.M.(2018).Prenatal alcohol exposure affects brain function during place learning ina virtual environment differently in boys and girls.Brain and Behavior,8(11),Article e01l03.https:/ lni /101002/h21102
*Woolley,D.G.,Vermaercke,B.,de Beeck,H.O.,Wagemans,J.. Gantois,I.,D'Hooge,R., Swinnen,S.P.,amp; Wenderoth,N. (2010).Sex differences in human virtual water maze performance:Novel measures reveal the relative contribution ofdirectional responding and spatial knowledge.Behavioural Brain Research,208(2),408-414.
*Wu,C.,Zhao,G.,Lin,B.,amp;Lee,J.(2013).Navigatinga car in an unfamiliar country using an internet map:Effects of street language formats,map orientation consistency,and gender on driver performance,workload and multitasking strategy.Behaviour and Information Technology,32(5), 425-437.
*Yasen,A.L.,Raber,J.,Miller,J.K.,amp;Piper,B.J.(2015). Sex,but not Apolipoprotein E Polymorphism,differences in spatial performance in young adults.Archives of Sexual Behavior,44(8),2219-2226.
*Youngson,N.L.,Vollebregt,M.,amp; Sutton,J.E.(2019). Individualdifferencesincognitivemapaccuracy: Investigating therole of landmark familiarity.Canadian JournalofExperimental Psychology/RevueCanadienne dePsychologieExperimentale,73(1),37-46.
*Yu,S.,Boone,A.P.,He,C.,Davis,R.C.,Hegarty,M., Chrastil,E.R.,amp;Jacobs,E.G.(2021).Age-related changes in spatial navigation are evident by midlife and differbysex.Psychological Science,32(5),692-704.
Yuan,L.,Kong,F(xiàn).,Luo,Y.M.,Zeng,S.Y.,Lan,J.J.,amp;You, X.Q.(2o19). Gender differences in large-scale and small-scale spatial ability:A systematic review based on behavioral and neuroimaging research.Frontiersin Behavioral Neuroscience, 13,Article e128. htps://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00128
*Yuan,P.,Daugherty,A.M.,amp; Raz,N. (2014).Turning bias in virtual spatial navigation:Age-related differences and neuroanatomical correlates. Biological Psychology,96, 8-19.
*Zancada-Menéndez, C.,Sampedro-Piquero,P.,Meneghetti, C., Labate,E.,Begega,A.,amp;López,L.(2015).Age differences in path learning:The role of interference in updating spatial information.Learningand IndividualDifferences,38,83-89.
Zeng,X.,Hedge,A.,amp; Guimbretiere,F(xiàn).(2012).Fitts’lawin 3D space with coordinated hand movements.Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting,56(1),990-994.
Zhong,J.Y.,amp;Moffat, S.D.(2016).Age-related differences in associative learning of landmarks and heading directions in a virtual navigation task.Frontiersin Aging Neuroscience, 8,Article e122.https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00122
*Zhou,Y.,Cheng,X.,Zhu,L.,Qin,T.,Dong,W.,amp;Liu,J. (2020).How does gender affect indoor wayfinding under time pressure? Cartography and Geographic Information Science,47(4),367-380.
*Zwergal, A., Schoberl,F(xiàn)., Xiong, G., Pradhan, C., Covic,A.. Werner,P.,...Brandt,T. (2016).Anisotropy of human horizontal and vertical navigation in real space:Behavioral and PET correlates.Cerebral Cortex,26(11),4392-4404.
A three-level meta-analysis of gender differences in spatial navigation ability
XUEXiaoran1,CUIWei1,ZHANGLi2 ( FacultyofPsychology,Beijing Normal University,Beijing 10o875,China) ( SchoolofSociologyandPsychologyCentralUniversityofFinanceandEconomics,Beiingoo8,China)
Abstract: Spatial navigation is an essential cognitive ability,yet the existence and extent of gender differences in this domain remain contentious. A there-level meta-analysis was conducted,synthesizing data from173 studies, with a total of 372 independent effect sizes and 26604 participants.The results indicated that spatial navigation ability generally exhibited gender differences, with males having stronger spatial navigation ability than females.However,these diferences were influenced by various factors,including age,representation mode,time constraints,task environment, test scene,and auxiliary equipment. Specifically, gender diferences in spatial navigation ability were not significant among infants and toddlers, in late adulthood,under dual indoor-outdoor testing conditions,or in the absence ofauxiliary devices.These results provide a comprehensive analysis of gender differences in spatial navigation ability,identify key moderating variables,and offer evidence-based recommendations for educational practices aimed at reducing gender disparities in this domain.
Keywords: spatial navigation, gender differences, there-level meta-analysis,moderating effect