Summaries

Revisiting Marx： Three New Perspectives on Deepening Understanding the Process of Philosophical Revolution

Ren Ping

Summary：Based on the historical position of the new era and new journey，we need to focus on promoting the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism. We need to continue the essence of the Marxist philosophical revolution and deeply grasp the ideological logic of the evolution of Marxism from Marx’s day to contemporary times. To this end，we need to revisit Marx and re-understand the process of Marx’s philosophical revolution from three new perspectives.

First，this study re-examines the history of the emergence of the new worldview from the perspective of field studies，breaking the narrow perspective of subjective narrative that the academic community has been fixated on when interpreting the Marxist philosophical revolution，or viewing the Marxist philosophical revolution only as a self-liquidation and self-revolution process enclosed within the Marxist philosophical beliefs，or interpreting it from interdisciplinary “intertextual contexts” such as “economic context” and “scientific socialist context.” These are not enough to truly understand the original context and fundamental reasons why Marx launched the philosophical revolution. This article points out that the Marxist philosophical revolution has been closely centered on the theme of changing the capital modernity society from beginning to end，and the philosophical revolution has become the ideological premise and theoretical basis for criticizing and subverting the capital modernity society，thus providing new enlightenment for understanding the internal relationship between Chinese path to modernization and the theoretical innovation of the modernization of Marxism in China.

Secondly，from the perspective of the “system view，” this study examines the relationship between “view” and “system” in the Marxist philosophical revolution，pointing out that this process is not only a revolutionary history of “view，” but also a process of co-construction of “view” and “system.” The two interact and continuously improve each other，thus achieving the theoretical system of Marxism，and providing the guiding principles of the “system view” for the construction of Chinas independent knowledge system with Chinese characteristics in the new era.

Thirdly，from the perspective of the “axis research paradigm，” this study examines the axis research paradigm as a methodological consciousness in the process of the Marxist philosophical revolution，revealing that the Marxist philosophical revolution not only manifests as a historical evolution of revolutionary results，but also as a thinking method that internally governs the revolution—the transformation of the axis research paradigm. From the paradigm of textual literature interpretation，dialogue paradigm，reflective problem study paradigm to the paradigm of field study，it promotes the entire logic of the emergence of the Marxist philosophical revolution，thus providing a paradigm consciousness for contemporary Chinese Marxist philosophy to keep pace with the times. The examination of these three new perspectives links the original context of Marx with the philosophical framework of 21st century Marxism in a new ideological context. It not only reconstructs the original understanding schema of Marxist philosophy，but also provides important enlightenment for the innovative development of 21st century Marxism.

Key words：Marx; Philosophical revolution; Chinese path to modernization; 21st century Marxism

The Debate on the Standard of Value and Its Theoretical Outlet

Liu Tongfang

Summary：The standard of value arises from the generalized social evaluation activities and needs to be fully understood from the dialectical relationship between social existence and social consciousness. The standard of value fundamentally depends on the mode of production of material life，and there is a complex interaction between it and social material activities. As a form of social consciousness that is restricted by various realistic conditions and in turn affects the development of human society，value standards participate in the reconstruction and innovation of social order. Modern society has established a stable social order with instrumental reason as its internal principle，and the social order led by instrumental reason promises a certain value standard of “anthropocentrism，” that is，to establish the standard of human being and human center. The clear boundary between man and things and man’s instrumentalization of things are the endogenous social mechanism of anthropocentrism.

Since the Enlightenment，the capitalist mode of production has developed rapidly in the world and gained a dominant position in society. Capitalist society constructs social order around instrumental rationality with capital as the “universal light.” Through the instrumentalization and quantification of the “world of things” and human labor，it promotes the progress of productive forces and social development while strengthening the identification of the bourgeois subject force as the personification of capital relations through the utilization of things and materialized labor. Thus，the value standard of “anthropocentrism” with the interests of the bourgeoisie as the core is established in the context of distinguishing people and things. Since the 21st century，technological progress has increasingly blurred the boundary between people and things，and the existence basis of instrumental rational social order and its “anthropocentrism” value standard has been increasingly attacked，triggering extensive discussion and controversy in the academic world. How to face the social risks brought by technological progress，how to reasonably place human value and dignity from the level of value standards and value concepts，and how to explore the way out of the development of human society have become an urgent task in the study of value issues. Only a more public and compatible value concept can transcend the inherent model of “anthropocentric” value standards and gain more widespread recognition，while maintaining the progressive commitment to technology and social development. Drawing on the essence of “harmony” thought in Chinese excellent traditional culture，Marxism’s proposition of “harmony and symbiosis” value concept in the 21st century constitutes a possible way to debate the value standard in the era of change. Starting from the value concept of “harmony and co-existence，” it can effectively deal with a series of value chaos problems brought by technological progress，and transcend the development logic envisaged by the politics of life，from the domination of the social order by instrumental reason to the common extinction of instrumental reason and value reason，so as to provide axiological guidance for the development of human society in the new era.

Key words：Standard of value; Instrumental reason; Value reason; Harmony and symbiosis

Re-interpreting the Concept of “Dividing Heaven and Earth”： With a Discussion on the Problems of Twentieth-Century Chinese Academic History

Cao Feng

Summary： In the twentieth-century Chinese scholarship，a great deal of research has been carried out on “Dividing Heaven and Earth”（jue di tian tong）in different fields，in an attempt to solve major problems concerning the origins of civilization，institutional changes and ideological transitions. However，the original meaning of “Dividing Heaven and Earth” has not yet been seriously clarified. The interpretation of this concept began to deviate from “The Discourses of the State of Chu” in The Discourses of the States，and the subsequent interpretations suffered from the arbitrariness and the unlimited amplification according to the interpreter’s own position.

Combined with the materials such as the Gongyang Tradition （Gongyang zhuan） and Comprehensive Discussions in the White Tiger Hall （Baihu tong yi），it can be seen that the original meaning of “Dividing Heaven and Earth” was to cut off the possibility of the communication between an out-of-power political regime and the gods in heaven and on earth，a punitive measure similar to “razing the ancestral temple，” rather than the misunderstanding that early in history，everyone was able to communicate with the heaven，but later，the divine power was replaced by the king’s power. “The Discourses of the State of Chu” emphasized the difference between the management system of the gods in heaven and that on earth，but this only meant that Chong and Li did not interfere with each other’s duties，and did not equate to the dichotomy between humans and gods and the separation of church and state. “Huozheng” was also a heavenly official post，but it was related to civil affairs，so it is wrong to say that Huozheng Li’s being put in charge of the earth and civil affairs means the break between heaven and earth or the separation of gods and humans.

By comparing the handed-down documents such as the “Calendars”（Li Shu） and “Astronomy”（Tianguan Shu） in the Records of the Grand Historian （Shi Ji），the “Treatise on Rhythm and the Calendar”（Lüli Zhi） and “Treatise on Sacrifices”（Jiaosi Zhi） in the Book of Han，and some excavated documents such as Tsinghua manuscripts，it can be found that a reasonable interpretation of “Dividing Heaven and Earth” must be placed both in the ancient Chinese historical view of the rise-and-fall cycle and in the context of tiandao view of calendars. In the alternation of order and disorder，religion representing the relationship between Gods and humans，and tiandao representing the relationship between heaven and humans resonate with each other at the same frequency." “Dividing Heaven and Earth，” originally a local event in the state of Chu，became an event of universal significance in the process of historical integration，transforming from an event that could be repeated to the single event of landmark significance at a major turning point in history. Chong and Li were gradually simplified from their original complex identities，which included religion，calendar and politics，to the identities that were only religious or only calendrical. Historical research since the twentieth century has been deeply influenced by the Western theory of single-line evolution，and the term “Dividing Heaven and Earth” has become an excellent example used to explain the transition from sorcery to religion，from religious authority to royal authority，and from theocracy to humanism. However，there have been suspicions of the out-of-context and exaggeration. Now we need to remove the heavy burden placed on the shoulders of “Dividing Heaven and Earth” by returning it to the text and context，and redefine the possible boundaries of interpretation.

Key words： Dividing Heaven and Earth（jue di tian tong）; “Lü on Punishments” in the Book of Documents; “The Discourses of the State of Chu” in The Discourses of the States; Du Duan written by Cai Yong; The “Wuji” section of the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips; Calendar system; Rule and chaos; Academic history

The Unity of Tian and Man and the Unity of Gods and Man as Parallel Concepts： A New Exploration of the Origin of Chinese Philosophy

Guo Yi

Summary：Since the beginning of the twentieth century，it has been a consensus in academia that Chinese philosophy originated from religion and formed during the era of contention among various masters. In this century，Yu Dunkang and Yu Ying-shih have successively provided new evidence for this view，believing that there were two forms of unity of tian and man in the pre-Qin period： one is religious unity of tian and man，and the other philosophical unity of tian and man. The former was seen in Western Zhou Dynasty，while the latter was achieved by various masters. This view is a product of Western-centric perspective，with room for debate.

The thought in early China developed along three paths： human-centered views，tian-centered views，and gods-centered views. Human-centered views emerged alongside humanity itself，while tian-centered views and gods-centered views began in ancient times. Through their interaction and integration with each other，two forms of spontaneous unity of tian and man as well as spontaneous unity of gods and man gradually formed. The former was mainly represented by early yi dao （the way of yi） views while the latter was exemplified by early tianming （the command of Heaven） views.

Yi dao originated from divination，and divination is a cultural phenomenon that predicts good and bad fortunes by exploring natural laws and trends in the development of things. It belongs to the category of tian-centered views，so yin yang and eight trigrams are not actually the means of obtaining divine inspiration，but rather the tian-centered views dressed in religious clothing. As for the era when yi dao was formed，the Book of Han says that “Yi Jing was compiled by three sages，across three ancient periods.” However，Liang Qichao believed that the two words yin and yang were “nothing more than a superficial phenomenon in nature” before the era of various masters，and it was not until the time of Laozi that they acquired profound meaning. However，archaeological discoveries， such as the painted red pottery bowl unearthed from the Yangshao culture layer at Xiapanwang site in Cixian County，Hebei Province， show that as early as 5500-5300 years ago，the concept of yin yang as a “superficial phenomenon in nature” had already appeared. Various archaeological discoveries such as Dawenkou Ancient Tomb in Tai’an City，Shandong Province and Lingjiatan Village Ancient Tomb in Hanshan County，Anhui Province，and records in extant historical literature，all indicate that during Neolithic times，the concept of yin yang with “profound meaning” had already formed. Of course，eight trigrams did not come about overnight or by one person alone; Fuxi gathered its essence to establish what has been passed down to this day as an exemplary model of eight trigrams formation，hence the belief that Fuxi had “created eight trigrams.”

From the perspective of archaeological discoveries，the early concept of tianming reflecting the spontaneous unity of gods and man appeared no later than seven to eight thousand years ago，rather than in the Western Zhou period as claimed by Yu Dunkang and Yu Ying-shih，as the religious views of the Shang dynasty have more typical significance.

During the philosophical breakthroughs and axial breakthroughs at the turn of Yin and Zhou dynasties，the spontaneous unity of tian and man and the spontaneous unity of gods and man evolved into a philosophical unity of tian and man. In other words，Chinese philosophy emerged during this period，with the so called the religious unity of tian and man in Western Zhou already being a philosophical unity of tian and man. Therefore，human-centered views，tian-centered views，and gods-centered views which formed in ancient times are all sources of Chinese philosophy，with religion only being one of them. Therefore，the spontaneous unity of tian and man and the spontaneous unity of gods and man，formed by integrating these three elements，became the prototypes of Chinese philosophy.

Key words：Unity of tian and man; Unity of gods and man; Way of tian; Way of gods; Way of yi; Chinese philosophy

The Historical Contribution of “Western China Confucianism”

Shu Dagang

Summary： “Western China” refers to Inner Mongolia and Ningxia，and the vast area covering Shaanxi，Sichuan，Yunnan，Guizhou，Tibetan Plateaus，the north and south of Tianshan Mountains. Western China is an important birthplace of human life and a crucial breeding ground for Chinese civilization. The cultural accumulation and civilization achievements of the western China，together with the civilizations of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River，the Yangtze River，the northeast，and the southeast regions of China，shine brightly and complement each other，laying a solid foundation for the establishment，dissemination，innovation，and development of Confucianism，the backbone of Chinese culture.

On the one hand，the cultural essence and achievements of civilization in western China have become an important resource for Confucius to establish Confucianism. Many classics of Confucianism were basically formed in western China，or were related to it，such as Lianshan，Zhouyi，“Xia Shu” and “Zhou Shu” in the Book of Documents，“Er Nan，”“Bin Feng，”“Qin Feng” and “Elegant Poems” in the Book of Poetry，“Zhou Li，”“Yi Li，”“Nan Yin” and Yue Jing，Spring and Autumn （including the Zhou’s Spring and Autumn），etc. Many concepts of Confucianism originated in the western China，such as Yin Yang，the Five Elements，and the Three Talents，which originated from Lianshan. The idea of “respecting virtue and protecting the people” can be traced back to “Suigong Xu，”“Xia Shu，”“Zhou Shu，” and The Classic of Mountains and Seas. The concepts of “morality，benevolence，righteousness，and ritual” were advocated by Sima Xiangru，Yan Zun，and Yang Xiong，all scholars from western China. The “yuanqi” theory was put forward and systematically applied by Yan Zun，Yang Xiong，Zhang Zai，and others. The list is long.

On the other hand，after the birth of Confucianism，the western part of China was also an important area for its inheritance and development. Among Confucius’ disciples，Qin Zu，Rangsi Chi，Shi Zuoshu，Shang Qu，and others were all of western origin. They enabled Confucianism to spread synchronously in the west with its dissemination in the eastern Qilu region. As the Guanzhong area had been the capital of the Zhou，Qin，and Western Han dynasties，many cultural systems that influenced the country were also born in this region，such as the official positions of “teacher，”“Confucian，”“historian” and “doctorate” in charge of education，and institutions such as “National Academy，”“Imperial Academy，” and so on that institutionalized the dissemination of Confucianism. The systems of Five Classics，Nine Classics （in Han and Tang Chang’an），Seven Classics （in Han Chengdu），and Thirteen Classics （from the Five Dynasties to the Northern Song in Chengdu），which were all formed in western China，have influenced the development of Confucianism throughout the country. Particularly，the combination of Confucian classics and ideas with the regional civilization，ethnic culture，and foreign exchanges in this part of the country has promoted new forms of Confucianism in terms of region，ethnicity，and the Silk Road （such as Shu studies，Guan studies，Long studies，Shuofang studies，Qian studies，Dian studies，etc.），and new themes of Confucianism （such as ethnic Confucianism，Silk Road Confucianism，Islamic Confucianism，Buddhist Confucianism，and Taoist Confucianism，etc.） has continuously enriched “Chinese Confucianism” from various aspects.

Key words：Western Confucianism; Western China; Confucianism; Chinese Culture

Co-Constructing Technology and Value： How Digital Intelligence Empowers Equitable Access to Urban Community Services

Jiang Xiaoping，Yang Shuwen

Summary： Achieving equitable accessibility of public services is a critical task for enhancing people’s well-being and improving their quality of life. While digital-intelligence empowerment can，to some extent，increase the speed and intensity of public service delivery in urban communities，any deviation from public values will inevitably diminish the human-centric warmth and effectiveness of these services，thereby undermining residents’ sense of benefit and happiness. The governance applications of digital intelligence technologies and the people-centered value orientation constitute the fundamental elements of digital-intelligence empowerment. Therefore，this study constructs an analytical framework from the perspective of co-construction between digital intelligence technologies and public values，systematically analyzing how digital intelligence empowers the realization of equitable access to public services in urban communities.

The study reveals that achieving equitable access to urban community public services can be categorized into three progressive objectives： precise identification of residents needs，categorized production and delivery of services，and adaptive improvement of the service system. In the context of urban community service provision，digital intelligence technologies and public values follow an incremental logic of initial intersection，relational dynamics，and symbiotic integration，progressively empowering the realization of equitable access. In the urban community public service context，technological applications and value consensus initially converge at the level of resident participation. Here，technology activates civic engagement，while residents forge value consensus through interest-based negotiations，thereby achieving precise identification of community needs. Next，technological integration and value co-creation achieve mutual embedding through resource allocation. By consolidating multi-typed resources，technological integration mobilizes diverse service stakeholders to engage in collaborative production across varying service provisions. This process translates value consensus into tangible service outcomes，thereby actualizing value co-creation and accomplishing categorized production and delivery of services. Finally，technological evolution and value diffusion achieve symbiosis through structural adaptation. Technological evolution enables dynamic adjustment of service architectures based on service feedback，thereby optimizing service solutions. Within the virtuous cycle of “feedback-driven optimization，” residents’ sense of benefit and satisfaction are progressively enhanced. This feedback-adaptation mechanism accomplishes value diffusion across the service ecosystem，ultimately realizing adaptive improvement of the service system. Digital-intelligence empowerment，grounded in the embeddedness of digital intelligence technologies as its instrumental foundation and guided by public value creation as its directional compass，ensures sustainable and stable operation of the service system while enabling phased advancement toward equitable access to community public services. This study not only theoretically addresses how digital-intelligence empowerment makes equitable access to urban community services possible but also practically demonstrates how such empowerment can be operationalized to achieve service equity.

Key words：Urban community public services; Digital-intelligence empowerment; Equitable access; Technology-Value co-construction

Technological Governance，Mass Work，and the Fengqiao Experience

He Xuefeng

Summary：The central government，local governments，and society constitute three interdependent dimensions in national governance. Effective governance requires maintaining balance among these three levels. The current high regard for technological governance represented by the 12345 citizen hotline has begun to show a trend and consequence of disrupting this governance balance. Through technological means such as the 12345 citizen hotline，societal demands can be raised at almost zero cost. When higher-level governments impose a stringent assessment on lower-level governments to resolve public grievances，this leads to an “explosion of demands，” disrupting the tripartite equilibrium. Local governments or grassroots governance may then shift their focus to primarily “catering” to the assessments from higher authorities，making it difficult to advance mass work. The political ecosystem at the grassroots level becomes dominated by “negative elements，” and grassroots governance “loses” its capacity to internally resolve contradictions. Moreover，the convenience and zero-cost nature of citizen hotline platforms erode the cost constraints inherent in the traditional petition system. Coupled with the “immediate handling of complaints” under the “stringent assessment” mechanism，this may trigger the proliferation and aggregation of irrational demands.

This evolution of governance ecology not only dispels the local conflict resolution mechanism emphasized by the traditional “Fengqiao experience，” but also faces the risk of weakening the subjectivity of local governance. The deep crux lies in the essential tension between the rigid logic of technical governance and the elastic demand of mass work. Therefore，to solve this contradiction，it is necessary to build a “flexible assessment cycle，” that is，higher governments’ assessment of lower governments needs to be periodically transformed between “strong assessment” and “weak assessment，” and then form a dynamic assessment “tight balance，” and finally achieve a dynamic balance between central authority，local initiative and social order.

Key words：Citizen hotline; Petition system; Fengqiao experience; Mass work

The “Essence” of Texts and the “Function” of Interpretation

Zhou Yukai

Summary： Ancient Chinese hermeneutics tends to emphasize both the ontological nature of texts and the practice of interpretation，which differs slightly from the Western hermeneutic tradition that focuses more on the process of understanding and the interpreter’s standpoint. This dual focus can be explained using the Chinese philosophical concepts of ti （體，essence） and yong （用，function）. The ontological existence of a text becomes the “essence”（ti） of a classical text through its role as a vessel for conveying the Way （dao），while the realization of textual meaning through understanding，interpretation，elaboration，and citation represents its “function”（yong），as seen in ancient expressions such as “the function of the Yi Jing，”“the function of the Shi Jing，” and “the function of the Chunqiu.”

Dong Zhongshu asserted that “the Shi Jing has no definitive interpretation，the Yi Jing has no definitive divination，and the Chunqiu has no definitive wording，” highlighting the pluralistic nature of classical text interpretation. However，he regarded “following change and following righteousness” as the fundamental principle of interpreting classical texts，suggesting that textual meaning is characterized by both variability and indeterminacy （bian，變） as well as interpretative rationality and appropriateness （yi，義）. The Yi Jing，as the most ontologically significant of the Six Classics，is inherently fluid in meaning （ti），which leads to diverse and differentiated interpretations （yong）. Statements from the “Xici Commentary” of the Yi Jing，such as “The benevolent see it as benevolence，and the wise see it as wisdom，”“To comprehend its divine mystery depends on the individual，” and “Extend it and apply it to similar cases，” have become fundamental concepts and methodologies in Chinese hermeneutics.

The idea that “the classics remain the same，but their commentaries differ” reveals the interaction between the openness of classical texts and the plurality of interpretations. The poetic expression of emotions of the Shi Jing results in the absence of a fixed form or definitive interpretation，leading to diverse readings. Whether in the “the Six Classics annotate me” approach，such as “expressing emotions and observing social customs” and “quoting passages out of context，” or in the “I annotate the Six Classics” approach，such as “understanding the author through historical context” and “interpreting the author’s intent based on one’s own insights，” all approaches manifest the general phenomenon of “the benevolent see benevolence，and the wise see wisdom.” The notion that “the Shi Jing has no definitive interpretation” extends beyond classical exegesis into the broader idea that “poetry has no definitive interpretation，” influencing poetic annotation practices such as jiju shi （poetic anthologies） and jizhu （collected commentaries），which are closely related to the reader’s and interpreter’s intuitive grasp of meaning.

From the Song dynasty onward，Confucian and Buddhist hermeneutical perspectives increasingly influenced each other，bringing greater attention to the relationship between the “essence” of texts and the “function” of interpretation. The Chan Buddhist method of “seeking the living meaning” was absorbed into the interpretation of Confucian classics and poetry. Zhong Xing creatively proposed the idea that “poetry is a living entity”（shi wei huowu），echoing the ancient concept that “life is the essence of change”（shengsheng zhi wei yi），emphasizing the vitality of texts and the flexibility of interpretation. This development further deepened the traditional approach of “following change and following righteousness.” Particularly，the relationship between “one essence and myriad functions” in texts and interpretations reflects both the Neo-Confucian principle of “one principle with diverse manifestations” and the Buddhist idea of “unity and multiplicity，” showing the unique modern significance of Chinese scholarly traditions.

Key words： Hermeneutics; Classical texts; Pluralistic interpretations; Ti-yong （essence and function）; Life is the essence of change （shengsheng zhi wei yi）; Poetry is a living entity （shi wei huowu）

A Re-Examination of the Significance of A Letter Home from Er Niangzi to the Study of the Dunhuang Guiyi Army

Liu Haoxia，Xiang Chu

Summary：" In the collection of the Anhui Museum，there is a Dunhuang manuscript named A Letter Home from Er Niangzi （二娘子家書），which was previously owned by Xu Chengyao，who served as a high-ranking government official in Gansu province for ten years from 1913 to 1924. During this period，he amassed more than two hundred Dunhuang manuscripts，among which A Letter Home from Er Niangzi was a special treasure. At first，it was attached to the back of a Buddhist scripture scroll. Later，it was detached and mounted separately to become an independent document. Xu Chengyao and others initially thought that this document dated back to the Tang Dynasty. However，Li Zhengyu determined that it was a letter written by Er Niangzi in Dunhuang in the fifth year of the Taiping Xingguo reign of the Northern Song Dynasty （AD 980）. This finding offers significant historical insights into the social life and family communication in Dunhuang during the early Song dynasty. However，as a family letter，it is problematic that Er Niangzi would report her safety in a letter dated June 21，three months after allegedly arriving at her destination on March 7，980. Moreover，the gifts mentioned in the letter—tuánjǐn （embroidered silk） and tuáncháo hóngjǐn （red brocade with nested patterns）—are characteristic of Gansu and Liangzhou （present-day Wuwei in Gansu） rather than Kaifeng，the Northern Song capital. Additionally，while the letter mentioned the “leap third month”（閏三月） of that year，Dunhuang’s lunar calendar often differed from the Central Plains calendar by one month. Thus，the conclusion that the letter was written in 980 based on the Central Plains’ leap third month and Dunhuang’s tribute mission to Kaifeng （then called Dongjing 東京） in that year is untenable.

Historical evidence suggests that the first year of the Tongguang reign of the Later Tang （AD 923） likely had a leap third month in Dunhuang’s calendar，corresponding to a leap fourth month in the Central Plains. Records indicate that after the Later Tang reestablished the Tang’s legacy，Cao Yijin was enfeoffed by the Later Tang imperial court in 924. Documents from the Cao family’s Guiyijun regime （P.2945，P.3151，P.3126V） reveal that in 923 Cao Yijin sought permission from Han Zhu，the military commissioner in Lingwu，to pass through his area to pay tribute to the Central Plains. Notably，P.3126V，written in a male voice，shares linguistic and temporal similarities with A Letter Home from Er Niangzi，mentioning his travel with a wife and the delay in Liangzhou due to Uyghur disturbances. This male correspondent is likely Er Niangzi’s husband，identified as “Cao” in P.3151. It is inferred that Er Niangzi accompanied Cao’s delegation departing Dunhuang in March 923 to pay tribute to Dongjing （either Handan or Luoyang），but they were stranded in Wuwei by June due to Uyghur interference，prompting her to write home.

The manuscript’s large format and its original attachment to a Dunhuang Buddhist sutra suggest it was mounted on the Undated Tang Calligraphy （無款唐人遺墨），another Anhui Museum artifact. Xu Chengyao later oversaw its detachment，but improper restoration caused irreparable damage to the document’s corner.

Key words：Historical literature from Dunhuang; Xu Chengyao; A Letter Home from Er Niangzi; Leap third month; Cao Yijin

Grammatical Practice，Symbolic Stratification，and Memory Reconstruction： The Dynamic Tension of Function Word Concepts in Ancient Texts from a New Cultural History Perspective

Yu Zukun

Summary： In ancient Chinese literary theory，particular emphasis is placed on the individual originality of elite literati，while simultaneously underscoring the necessity of daily，practical cultivation in foundational disciplines required of all scholars. The former has long garnered scholarly attention，yielding a substantial body of research，whereas the latter—a collective，quotidian concept—has been inadvertently or deliberately marginalized.

Taking the function words in classical prose as an example，their significance extends beyond the exclusive purview of the elite; rather，they permeate the daily intellectual lives of literati across social strata，engendering a rich and nuanced collective ideology. Re-examining the conception of function words through the lens of New Cultural History reveals that function words not only served as essential tools for constructing textual logic，rhythm，and emotional resonance，but also，through their integration into traditional education，the imperial examination system，and popular reading practices，became pivotal vehicles for shaping collective cultural memory.

In traditional literary pedagogy，the study of function words was regarded as foundational to reading and writing，with their flexibility and complexity sparking widespread engagement from elementary education to elite literary creation. The imperial examination system reinforced ideological discipline by standardizing their usage，reflecting the manipulation of linguistic forms by power discourses. Meanwhile，critiques and debates over function words from the perspective of reading history demonstrate the dynamic，pluralistic interpretations of texts by readers across eras and social classes，driving the continuous reproduction of knowledge about function words in critical practice. As cultural symbols，classical function words accrued layered meanings through historical sedimentation： during the Ming and Qing dynasties，their codification in examinations served as a mechanism of ideological control，while in the modern cultural transformation，they emerged as a focal point in the contestation between old and new cultural paradigms. The endurance and evolution of conceptions surrounding function words epitomize the reconstructive nature of historical memory and the dynamism of symbolic meaning，reflecting the tensions and adaptations in China’s socio-cultural transformation. Thus，function words transcend grammatical categorization，becoming a cultural prism through which we can examine the dialectics of tradition and modernity，the elite and the populace，conservatism and innovation.

This New Cultural History perspective on classical function words offers a critical insight： contemporary cultural construction must not only prioritize the guiding role of elite discourse but also harness the vast practical momentum of public intellectual engagement.

Key words： Function words; New Cultural History; Textual composition; Collective literary consciousness; Cultural symbol

The AI Time of Meaning： The Puzzle of “the Present Moment”

Zhao Yiheng

Summary： Time is a crucial problem in human understanding of the world. The thinkers who have pondered over the problem tend to the conclude that human time is not entirely the physical time but the internalized time of consciousness. Human beings rely on “the present moment of sentience” to synthesize the three divisions of time—the past， the present， and the future—and to turn time into a continuous flow. In the Daoist Canon Zhuangzi there is a fable difficult to interpret： Chaos， who dwells in the centre but with no senses， receives guests representing “moments” who chisel out organs of senses on him， resulting in his instant death. The fable obviously pronounces that the momentary senses of the body make the existence of Chaos no longer possible， as the duration of time is thus divided.

However， the way of meaning-making of AI systems is different from that of human beings， therefore their way of constructing time is different from that of human beings. The AI systems need time， since the temporal sequence is an extreme important factor in their selection of the needed data. Their present moment is， nevertheless， the time of operation—to answer questions or take actions. The inputting of database， however， stopped at a certain time of pre-training， with a time gap keeping them distant from the operative present moment， which the AI systems are unable to bridge. Their “present” is， therefore， ontologically flawed. The last moment of their updating of database is bound to be distant from the real present.

The question is whether it is viable to combine the two ways of time constructing. Could the temporal present be formed by various interaction between the Self and the Other？ Could the" “operative present” be the moment that the intelligent entity （with or without self-consciousness） forms in a continuous temporal flow with the world？Could it be possible to assume that the flux of time be divided at the moment of “existent” interaction between the intelligent entity （artificial or human） and the world？

The purposefulness of all the AI systems makes it inevitable that the construction of their database is finished before the present in order to ready it for its performance at the operative present， and that its memory cannot be directly contingent to the present moment. The operative moment， however， though different from the embodied sensuous present of human beings， is also an instantiated synthesizing of time. With the rapid improvement of AI systems， their way of constructing time might eventually merge with the human manner of time synthesis.

Key words： Time of meaning; Time of consciousness; Present moment of sentience; Operative present; Artificial intelligence

Beyond the Archaeological Tradition Starting from the Yin Xu Site： The Early Excavations of Sanxingdui and Early Chinese Archaeology

Huo Wei

Summary：The academic community generally regards the archaeological excavations at the Yin Xu site in Anyang，Henan，as one of the landmark achievements marking the birth of Chinese archaeology. It is also widely believed that Chinese archaeology has since been rooted in the tradition established at Yin Xu. However，beyond Yin Xu，there were other early examples and paradigms of Chinese archaeology that emerged through different means. The early discovery and excavation of the Sanxingdui site in Guanghan，Sichuan （1927-1934） serves as a representative case. As the first scientific archaeological practice in Southwest China following the introduction of Western archaeology into China，this excavation not only adopted Western fieldwork techniques and methodologies but also emphasized scientific approaches and interdisciplinary research. While resonating with the excavations at Yin Xu in their aim of reconstructing ancient history，the Sanxingdui excavations also raised new questions and set new research objectives for the study of ancient Shu civilization.

During the preliminary preparations for this excavation，extensive consultations and negotiations between the Chinese and foreign parties ultimately led to a mutually acceptable mode of cooperation，facilitating the smooth execution of this scientific archaeological endeavor. Given the highly complex political situation and social conditions at the time，this outcome undoubtedly reflected the political acumen and strategic capabilities of those involved. Furthermore，regarding the ownership of the excavated artifacts，the principal overseer of the excavation，David Crockett Graham，showed due respect for Chinese interests by adopting a negotiated approach to reach a final preservation agreement. As a result，this early collection of Sanxingdui artifacts was permanently preserved in China，thereby preventing them from becoming part of the widespread dispersal of Chinese cultural relics abroad due to foreign “archaeological” and “exploratory” activities during this period. As the director of the West China Union University Museum，Graham placed great emphasis on the display and public dissemination of excavated artifacts. From the excavation site in Guanghan to the West China Union University Museum，information about the discoveries was promptly made accessible to the public. This approach played a positive role in both enhancing public awareness and appreciation of local culture and alleviating concerns and tensions regarding foreign participation in Chinese excavations. Undoubtedly，such efforts provided valuable historical experience for the establishment of early Chinese archaeology.

Another Chinese scholar involved in the early excavations at Sanxingdui，Lin Mingjun，demonstrated remarkable academic insight into the relationship between the ancient Shu civilization and the Central Plains. Drawing on archaeological findings and historical records，he recognized that cultural exchanges between Sichuan and the Central Plains had deep historical roots. His research revealed the connections and unity between the ancient Shu and Central Plains civilizations，expanding from regional historical knowledge to a broader understanding of the overall Chinese culture. His perspective was not confined to a narrow “regional cultural” framework but instead reflected a more comprehensive academic vision that emphasized the significance of the ancient Shu civilization within the overall cultural landscape of ancient China. Even by today’s standards，his approach transcends the simplistic theory of regional culture，offering a perspective of considerable breadth and depth.

Key words：Sanxingdui archaeology; Early Chinese archaeology; Ancient Shu Civilization; Exploration of Chinese Civilization origins

The “Dragon Head” and the “Helmsman”： Power Totems in Sichuan Local Society

Wang Di

Summary：This study examines the Sichuan Paoge （Gowned Brotherhood） during the Qing to the Republican era，analyzing how this organization constructed a" “second institutional system” parallel to official governance by imitating and reconstructing state power symbols. It reveals the Paoge’s “power totem” system at the margins of orthodox order，which sustained local stability and autonomy. The Paoge’s hierarchical organization centered on the lifelong leader，the “Dragon Head Elder”（Longtou daye），whose authority was sanctified through rituals of Guan Yu worship，merging roles of religious priest，political leader，and adjudicator. The “Helmsman”（Duobazi），as the practical manager，controlled economic networks，while the “Incense Master”（Xiangzhang） oversaw ritual practices，collectively forming a tripartite power structure of “symbolism-pragmatism-spirituality.” This structure embodied Max Weber’s concept of “charismatic authority.” The mid-level “Huanhou” managed finances，while lower ranks like “Guardians of Discipline”（Hulü） and “Patrollers”（Xunfeng） enforced codes of conduct，supported by a strict hierarchy and a merit-based promotion system for junior members （Xiao Laoyao）. Notably，the Paoge parodied Qing bureaucratic titles to construct a parallel “jianghu bureaucratic system，” a symbolic subversion of state authority that reflected grassroots reinterpretations of traditional power logic.

The legitimacy of Paoge authority relied heavily on ritual performances and cultural symbolism. In incense hall ceremonies，the Guan Yu worship became the ethical core，with objects like the Green Dragon Blade and Red Rod serving as both disciplinary tools and sacred totems. The “blood oath” ritual symbolized members’ ascension from the lowest ranks to the “Dragon Head，” reinforcing collective identity. The organization further monopolized knowledge through secret texts like the Hanliu haidi and initiation rites，creating a counterpart to the imperial examination system. While male-dominated，the Paoge occasionally challenged gender norms，highlighting limited yet significant gender agency within the patriarchal framework.

Far from being purely anti-state，the Paoge co-opted official symbols into its order，enacting “symbolic decentralization.” By the late Republican era，Paoge “Helmsmen” often mediated disputes and managed resources，forming tacit alliances with local governments to stabilize communities—a testament to their role as informal governance actors. The Paoge case illustrates the vitality of grassroots institutional innovation and cultural adaptation. Its hybrid power system blended charismatic，traditional，and legal-rational authority. Through “totemic politics，” the Paoge carved out a space of coexistence and contestation at the edges of orthodoxy，reflecting the dynamic evolution of Chinese traditional society. The Paoge’s power totem system emerged from the interplay of folk ingenuity and orthodox hegemony. Through hierarchical structures，ritualized practices，and flexible institutional designs，it established a parallel authority that balanced stability and adaptability.

Key words： Paoge; Power totems; Grassroots organization; Institutional imitation; Local society

Liu Shipei During His Short Stay in Chengdu and Taiyuan in Early Republican Years

Guan Aihe

Summary：During his brief 36-year life，Liu Shipei （1884-1919） had the experience of living in Chengdu （1911-1913） and Taiyuan （1913-1914） for three years. When the 1911 Revolution broke out in Wuchang，Liu Shipei was travelling to Sichuan with Duanfang （1861-1911），the Qing minister. In Zizhou，Liu was dispatched by Duanfang to Chengdu to negotiate with the revolutionary military government. Duanfang was soon killed by his New Army in Wuchang uprising，but fortunately，Liu Shipei managed to escape the disaster. Under the protection of scholarly acquaintances in Chengdu，Liu assumed the deanship of the Sichuan Academy of Chinese Learning. Meanwhile，he co-founded the Conservatory for Ancient Learning and became a pivotal figure in promoting scholarship in Sichuan during the transition from late Qing to early Republican era. His reintroduction of specialized classical pedagogy and launch of scholarly journals aligned seamlessly with his scholarly pursuits. Liu’s work was greatly influenced by the advocacy of Zhang Zhidong for reviving Sichuan’s scholarly tradition and by Wang Kaiyun’s introduction of New Confucian Texts studies （Jinwen）. Personally，by promoting the academic style prevalent in Southeastern China，Liu Shipei played a crucial role in shaping Sichuan’s intellectual landscape.

During his short stay in Chengdu，Liu Shipei embraced academia wholeheartedly，rediscovering his scholarly essence. This reintegration sparked a revitalization of his intellectual prowess，and he renewed his aspirations in scholarly pursuits. Meanwhile，his wife，He Zhen，uncertain of where Liu was or how he was living，encountered significant challenges in maintaining her own daily life. Seeking assistance from the Tongmenghui community，she embarked on a journey to Taiyuan，where she supported herself by teaching in Yan Xishan’s house. Eventually，with the support of friends，she reunited with Liu Shipei in Chengdu.

In August 1913，He Zhen and Liu Shipei left Chengdu for Shanxi，where Liu was employed as an advisor in Yan Xishan’s Governor’s Office. From November 1913 to October 1914，Guo Xiangsheng and Liu Shipei collaborated in the Governor’s Office and engaged in frequent interactions. In his books，including Annotations to the Zuo’an Collection，Writings and Poems of Guo Yunshu，and Guo Xiangsheng’s Colophons on Collected Books，Guo described Liu Shipei’s academic endeavors in Taiyuan. In contrast to Chengdu，Liu Shipei’s life and scholarly environment in Taiyuan were marked by a heightened revolutionary spirit but provided fewer opportunities for academic outreach. Guo once asked Liu Shipei why he had not continued his family’s scholarly tradition by writing his own commentary on the Zuozhuan. Liu replied，“My heart cannot focus on it.” This statement expresses his profound sadness and highlights his role as a reformer of traditional scholarship. Living in a time when old knowledge was being reassessed and new ideas nurtured，he found himself unable to work on the Zuo Commentary and thus reluctantly parted with the academic legacy that had been passing in four generations of the Liu family.

After Yuan Shikai officially became president，he excluded Tongmenghui and Nationalist Party members from the government，threatening Yan Xishan’s authority as Governor of Shanxi. As Yan navigated a delicate balance of compliance and opposition to Yuan Shikai，he nominated Liu Shipei，a renowned expert in classical studies，for a position in the Presidential Office suited to his talents，seeking to reduce tensions between Beijing and Taiyuan. Consequently，amid the distinct political challenges of the early Republic，Liu Shipei entered the second controversial phase of his life，a decision that would later be despised.

Key words：Liu Shipei; Early Republican years; Sichuan Academy of Chinese Learning; Shanxi Governor’s Office

The Disorder of the Press Industry in Early Republican China and the Reconstruction of Press Laws

Yang Tianhong

Summary： At the beginning of the Republic of China，the Nanjing Provisional Government abolished the Daqing Press Law and simultaneously promulgated the Interim Press Law to regulate the press industry. Opponents vehemently resisted on the grounds that this press law violated the principle of freedom of the press and publication，that its legislation was not in line with proper procedures，and that most democratic countries did not have such press laws. Facing the opposition from the press circle，the Nanjing Provisional Government quickly abolished its Interim Press Law. The first press law of the Republic of China only existed for a week.

In April 1914，the government of Yuan Shikai promulgated the Newspaper Regulations，known as the new press law. It stipulated that newspaper establishment required registration and the payment of a security deposit. Newspapers were prohibited from publishing content that damaged others’ reputation and interests and other prohibited items. At the same time，it was stipulated that news manuscripts involving diplomacy，military affairs，etc.，must be filed with the police authorities before publication，and penalties for violations were also specified. As soon as this regulation was announced，it was met with a flood of criticism. People in the press circle believed that this regulation included a “pre-examination system，” which violated the principle that press and publication should be “absolutely free.” The original intention of the opponents was to safeguard the legally granted rights of freedom of the press and publication under the republican democratic system，but not all of their objections were tenable. Among them，the most crucial “pre-examination system” for news did not actually exist in the new press law. However，due to the continuous resistance of the opponents，this press law was abolished soon after Yuan Shikai’s death.

After the successive abolition of the two press laws，the State Council meeting of the Beiyang Government once proposed the application of the Daqing Press Law. Prime Minister Duan Qirui and others believed that this press law was formulated during the previous Qing dynasty and did not conform to the republican system，and they advocated the “temporary laissez-faire doctrine” under the current situation. The combination of the official “laissez-faire” attitude and the radical press circle’s advocacy of “absolute freedom” of press and publication led to a relatively legal vacuum in the news field. Although objectively it was conducive to the expression of opinions，it also caused the press industry to have no laws to follow and to be seriously out of order. The specific manifestations were as follows： 1. The press industry lost its threshold，and anyone could start a newspaper，resulting in a decline in the quality of newspapers. 2. The quality of journalists varied greatly. There were endless cases of journalists accepting government subsidies，soliciting bribes from warlords and politicians，and extorting money from officials and civilians involved. 3. False news was rampant，and news reports were seriously inconsistent with the facts，greatly damaging the reputation of newspapers.

Facing this situation，the Chinese people began to reflect，but due to political differences between the north and the south，different routes were chosen for the reconstruction of press laws. The north controlled by the Beiyang Government proposed the Newspaper Bill，which was more standardized and more mature compared to the two press laws in the early Republican period，attempting to solve the problem of the out-of-order state of the press industry through the legal route. However，due to political unrest and differences of opinion among journalists，this bill could not pass the legislative procedures in Congress and failed to achieve its goal. The Kuomintang in the south chose the political solution route. After overthrowing the political rule of the Beiyang Government through the Northern Expedition，it established a brand-new set of press regulations，and the out-of-order situation of the press industry improved to some extent. However，due to the Kuomintang’s autocratic centralization of power and its confusion of propaganda and news，it brought about more serious restrictions on the press industry that had occurred neither in the early days of the Republic or in the Beiyang period.

Modern journalists pursued “absolute freedom” of press and publication，but they got the opposite result，achieving something contrary to their original intentions.

Key words： Early Republican China; Rise and fall of press laws; Disorder of the press industry; Reconstruction of press laws

The Autonomy of Criminal Law in China： Basic Orientation and Development Prospects

Zhou Guangquan

Summary： Since the new century，the intellectual autonomy of China’s criminal law has shown three features： establishing the basic position of criminal law through systematic thinking，paying continuous attention to judicial practice，and maintaining the ability of reflection and critical spirit of theory. It has made significant progress in effectively implementing the principle of legally prescribed crimes for crimes and punishments，building a reasonable criminal theory system，and deepening research on the theory of negligence，accomplice theory，number theory of crime，sentencing theory，and identification of specific crimes. Theoretical research has been unprecedently active，providing rich resources to meet the practical needs of social governance，and high-level theoretical accumulation also provides an opportunity to review the past and look forward to the future. The main characteristics of the autonomy of criminal law in China include grasping criminal law in the sense of ontology as much as possible rather than in the sense of pure reason; taking substantive and value judgments into account in criminal law theory; considering the principle of illegality judgment in the general theory of criminal law together with the determination of individual crimes; solving China’s problem as the ultimate goal even if we borrow theoretical terms from other countries. Therefore，whether to use a certain term from foreign criminal law is not the only criterion for judging whether our country’s knowledge is autonomous. What matters is the proper solution to judicial problems. The endless emergence of difficult cases determines that China’s criminal law theory can only be constructed on a practical and functional basis，instead of building a self-consistent system based on purely normative theory.

Criminal law aims to resolve extreme social conflicts，and it is the mission of scholars to attach importance to the practical rationality of theory. China’s criminal law research has been able to discover the local wisdom of legal persons in living judicial practice and find opportunities for theoretical development，and then develop a criminal law knowledge system that conforms to the spirit of the times，instead of mechanically copying foreign theories. This general direction is absolutely correct. The future development of criminal law in China should continue to adhere to its dogmatic direction，which does not require purely rational and deductive thinking，nor should it advocate a tabular and formal “school debate” in criminal law. The knowledge system of criminal law must take into account the thinking logic of practice，continue to promote the functionalist turn of criminal law，and to exert efforts in the fields of negligent offender，accomplice theory，and sentencing theory，conduct in-depth research based on adjudication，properly handle the relationship between criminal law，civil and commercial laws，and administrative law，etc. This knowledge system should maintain the modest nature of criminal law，while keeping the ability to reflect on theory，and it cannot always agree with judicial conclusions. Those clearly unreasonable judgments require reflection and review. The decline of the critical spirit of theory over practice must be prevented. On this basis，we should further think about what kind of judgment rules should be constructed to prevent judicial deviations and to form reasonable interpretation methods so as to correctly apply criminal law. Taking the above key issues into comprehensive consideration，the goal of building a more explanatory and penetrating criminal law knowledge system can be expected.

Key words： China criminal law; Criminal theory system; Practice orientation; Restraint of criminal law; Independent knowledge system

An Exploration of the Significance of Legal Thinking Rules

Chen Jinzhao

Summary： In the general pragmatics of Chinese jurisprudence scholars，law is often defined as a code of conduct，while the thinking process preceding conduct is frequently overlooked. Different from the code of conduct，the pre-positioned thinking process should be regulated by the rules of legal thinking. The rules of legal thinking mainly summarize how legal professionals think about the application of the law. The view that equates statutory law with the law and further contends that the law is merely a code of conduct ignores the guiding and normative role of the rules of legal thinking in the application of the law. In fact，the regulation of behavior presupposes the governance of thinking. Whether it is the understanding，interpretation，or other activities related to the application of the law，they are all thinking activities carried out in accordance with the law. Therefore，the application of the rules of legal thinking is inevitably involved in the dynamic application of the law. To apply the law appropriately，the status of the rules of legal thinking must be recognized. According to this dynamic perspective of law，the rules of legal thinking are not only conceptually plausible but also constitute an essential component of the legal system. As an enterprise governed by rules，the rule of law encompasses both behavioral norms and legal thinking rules，which not only guide the attainment of legality and legitimacy but also evaluate the correctness of reasoning. In the specific context of application，the meanings of general laws formulated by legislators need to be re-determined. This process requires methods such as legal discovery，legal interpretation，interest balancing，and legal continuation. In this way，the rules of legal thinking can fulfill the mission of transforming the law from generality to specificity，thus enabling it to enter the legal system and become part of the law applied by judges.

Consequently，a mindset compatible with the construction of a rule-of-law China must incorporate the application of legal thinking rules，making the exploration of their significance a critical theoretical issue. On the one hand，as a foundational proposition in legal methodology，legal thinking rules provide criteria for evaluating the correctness of reasoning，guide decision-making toward legality and legitimacy，and advance the pursuit of rule-of-law thinking. On the other hand，the rules of legal thinking distill legal practical experience，and fully leveraging their value and functions can establish preemptive methodological goals for judicial and law enforcement processes，ensuring the legality of outcomes and preventing “blind flights” in legal application. Moreover，in the specific context of contemporary China，the exploration of the rules of legal thinking also has its special significance. Rules governing concepts，judgments，reasoning，and systematic thinking—core elements of logic—serve as effective tools for applying legal thinking rules. Therefore，emphasizing these rules can foster greater attention to logical rigor，and helps address the historical absence of logic in traditional Chinese modes of thinking，thereby upholding legal authority and advancing the realization of the rule-of-law ideal.

Key words： Rules of legal thinking; Legal methodology; Codes of conduct; Rule-of-Law thinking; Legal logic

A Chinese Misreading of a Foreign Literary Concept： Differentiating Li Jieren from Roman-Fleuve Novels

Wu Tianzhou

Summary： Chinese literary critics have frequently employed the concept of “roman-fleuve” in interpreting Li Jieren’s historical trilogy Dead Water Waves，Before the Storm，and The Great Wave. However，the close association between Li Jieren and the roman-fleuve paradigm—rooted in the creative misreading of scholars since Sima Changfeng and embedded within normative discourses of literary history—emerges as a contingent construct. While Chinese scholarship predominantly identifies the roman-fleuve with nineteenth-century French realism （epitomized by Balzac and Zola），this term itself lacks rigorous academic definition，as it is characterized by ambiguous boundaries and divergent interpretations among theorists. Notwithstanding its conceptual fluidity，the rise of the roman-fleuve discourse in early twentieth-century France was intimately linked to broader cultural shifts. Writers and critics such as Romain Rolland and Thibaudet actively appropriated Bergsonian philosophy，Nietzschean thought，and foreign literary traditions from Britain，Russia，and Germany to transcend the achievements of nineteenth-century French realism. Although these influences manifested unevenly across French authors，they collectively shaped the discursive milieu that crystallized into the metaphor of the “great river.”

Li Jieren，who studied in France during the 1920s，was not immune to these intellectual currents，as evidenced by his extensive writings on French literature，including detailed accounts of Tolstoy’s reception in France through the works of Paul Bourget. Nevertheless，Li Jieren consciously rejected modernist techniques associated with the roman-fleuve，persisting instead in employing nineteenth-century realist conventions such as Balzac’s “reappearing characters” method. This apparent divergence between Chinese and Western literary developments reflects both the ideological orientations of May Fourth-era Chinese literati toward French culture and Li Jieren’s personal artistic choices. Furthermore，while Li Jieren’s engagement with nineteenth-century French realism is undeniable，reducing his trilogy to a singular narrative of Franco-Chinese literary relations proves insufficient. A more productive approach involves analyzing the trilogy’s works individually rather than assuming an overarching systematic framework.

Key words：Li Jieren; “Roman-fleuve” novels; Chinese-foreign literary relations

The Formation of Confucian Classical Studies in Early Republican China and Its Modern Transformation

—A Case Study of Intellectual Discourses in the Monarchist Restoration Movement

Zhang Daokui

Summary：" The transformation of Confucianism in modern China has been intrinsically tied to shifts in state and societal structures，positioning it at the transitional juncture between imperial era and democratic era. Contemporary Chinese scholarly attempts to sever Confucianism’s historical ties with imperial institutions risk obscuring its phased characteristics and hindering its reconfiguration. During the imperial era，Confucian Classical Studies crystallized as a dual framework of moral-philosophical principles and institutionalized orthodoxy. The early Republican China witnessed the last ideological confrontation between these imperial-era doctrines and republican-democratic ideals，rendering the Monarchist Restoration Movement debates a paradigmatic lens for analyzing the imperial-era Confucian Classical Studies configuration.

Monarchist scholars focused on three key themes： （1） the “sagely sovereign’s rightful position” as the cornerstone of hierarchical order，（2） the political efficacy of familial governance，and （3） the ideological contest between monarchist and democratic interpretations of “republicanism.” Figures such as Liu Tingchen and Shen Zengzhi anchored their arguments in the Yi Jing Hexagram Lü to assert that hierarchical norms—emphasizing ruler-subject distinctions—ensured social stability，with the sovereign as the moral-political axis. Invoking the Gongyang Commentary’s doctrine of “rectifying names，” they justified monarchic legitimacy while denouncing presidential electoral contests as destabilizing. The post-1914 debates further juxtaposed hereditary succession against electoral republicanism. Scholars like Lao Naixuan，Zhang Qin，and Yang Du cited Chinese classical precedents—Yu passing the throne to Qi and Yao voluntarily abdicating to Shun—to argue that hereditary rule ensured policy continuity and mitigated the republican pitfalls of “presidential power struggles” and “short-term governance.” Simultaneously，monarchist intellectuals sought to selectively adapt republican ideals. Lao Naixuan and Song Yuren reinterpreted the Zhou-era “Shared Governance” and the “taking Spring and Autumn period as the new king” in Gongyang Commentary to advocate a hybrid system where republican structures “returned authority to the monarchy” or “entrusted rule to a symbolic sovereign.” Kang Youwei’s “Symbolic Monarchy Republic，” grounded in the Three Ages Theory of the Gongyang and Datong utopianism，epitomized attempts to reconcile Classical Studies with Western republicanism. By elucidating Confucian Classical Studies’ imperial-era foundations and its “critical junctures” in modern theoretical reconfiguration，this case study underscores the imperative of creatively transforming Confucian Classical Studies to engage contemporary intellectual landscapes.

Key words： Confucian Classics; Monarchist Restoration Movement; Imperial regime; Republic; Kang Youwei; Early Republican China

（英文編校：金學勤）